Methods for Developing Personalized Drug Treatment Plans and Targeted Drug Development Based on Proteomic Profiles

ABSTRACT

The present invention relates to developing customized therapies for a disease or condition in a subject. In particular, the present invention relates to aptamer-based compositions and methods for identifying, modulating and monitoring drug targets in individual with a disease or condition, and further composition and methods for identifying and selecting protein targets for drug development.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a continuation of U.S. application Ser. No. 15/754,064, filed Feb. 21, 2018, which is a national phase entry pursuant to 35 U.S.C. § 371 of International Application No. PCT/US2016/050908, filed Sep. 9, 2016, which claims the benefit of priority of U.S. Provisional Application No. 62/215,852, filed Sep. 9, 2015, each of which is incorporated by reference herein in its entirety for any purpose.

FIELD

The present invention relates to developing customized therapies for a disease or condition in a subject. In particular, the present invention relates to aptamer-based compositions and methods for identifying, modulating and monitoring drug targets in an individual with a disease or condition, and further composition and methods for identifying and selecting protein targets for drug development.

BACKGROUND

Oncogenes have become the central concept in understanding cancer biology and may provide valuable targets for therapeutic drugs. In many types of human tumors, including lymphomas and leukemias, oncogenes are over-expressed and may be associated with tumorigenicity (Tsujimoto et al., Science 228:1440-1443 [1985]). For instance, high levels of expression of the human bcl-2 gene have been found in all lymphomas with a t(14; 18) chromosomal translocations including most follicular B cell lymphomas and many large cell non-Hodgkin's lymphomas. High levels of bcl-2 gene expression have also been found in certain leukemias that do not have a t(14; 18) chromosomal translation, including most cases of chronic lymphocytic leukemia acute, many lymphocytic leukemias of the pre-B cell type, neuroblastomas, nasophryngeal carcinomas, and many adenocarcinomas of the prostate, breast and colon. (Reed et al., Cancer Res. 51:6529 [1991]; Yunis et al., New England J. Med. 320:1047; Campos et al., Blood 81:3091-3096 [1993]; McDonnell et al., Cancer Res. 52:6940-6944 [1992); Lu et al., Int. J. Cancer 53:29-35 [1993]; Bonner et al., Lab Invest. 68:43 A [1993]. Other oncogenes include TGF-.alpha., c-ki-ras, ras, her-2 and c-myc.

Gene expression, including oncogene expression, can be inhibited by molecules that interfere with promoter function. Accordingly, the expression of oncogenes may be inhibited by single stranded oligonucleotides.

Cancer treatment typically includes chemotherapeutic agents and often radiation therapy. In many cases, however, the current treatments are not efficacious or do not cure the cancer. Consequently, there is a need for more effective cancer treatments.

For example, lung cancer remains the leading cause of cancer death in industrialized countries. About 75 percent of lung cancer cases are categorized as non-small cell lung cancer (e.g., adenocarcinomas), and the other 25 percent are small cell lung cancer. Lung cancers are characterized in to several stages, based on the spread of the disease. In stage I cancer, the tumor is only in the lung and surrounded by normal tissue. In stage II cancer, cancer has spread to nearby lymph nodes. In stage III, cancer has spread to the chest wall or diaphragm near the lung, or to the lymph nodes in the mediastinum (the area that separates the two lungs), or to the lymph nodes on the other side of the chest or in the neck. This stage is divided into IIIA, which can usually be operated on, and stage TIM, which usually cannot withstand surgery. In stage IV, the cancer has spread to other parts of the body.

Most patients with non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) present with advanced stage disease, and despite recent advances in multi-modality therapy, the overall ten-year survival rate remains dismal at 8-10% (Fry et al., Cancer 86:1867 [1999]). However, a significant minority of patients, approximately 25-30%, with NSCLC have pathological stage I disease and are usually treated with surgery alone. While it is known that 35-50% of patients with stage I disease will relapse within five years (Williams et al., Thorac. Cardiovasc. Surg. 82:70 [1981]; Pairolero et al., Ann, Thorac. Surg. 38:331 [1984]), it is not currently possible to identify which specific patients are at high risk of relapse.

Adenocarcinoma is currently the predominant histologic subtype of NSCLC (Fry et al., supra; Kaisermann et al., Brazil Oncol. Rep. 8:189 [2001]; Roggli et al., Hum. Pathol. 16:569 [1985]). While histopathological assessment of primary lung carcinomas can roughly stratify patients, there is still an urgent need to identify those patients who are at high risk for recurrent or metastatic disease by other means. Previous studies have identified a number of preoperative variables that impact survival of patients with NSCLC (Gail et al., Cancer 54:1802 1984]; Takise et al., Cancer 61:2083 [1988]; Ichinose et al., J. Thorac. Cardiovasc. Surg. 106:90 [1993]; Harpole et al., Cancer Res. 55:1995]). Tumor size, vascular invasion, poor differentiation, high tumor proliferate index, and several genetic alterations, including K-ras (Rodenhuis et al., N. Engl. J. Med. 317:929 [1987]; Slebos et al., N. Engl. J. Med. 323:561 [1990]) and p53 (Harpole et al., supra; Horio et al., Cancer Res. 53:1 [1993]) mutation, have been reported as prognostic indicators.

Tumor stage is an important predictor of patient survival, however, much variability in outcome is not accounted for by stage alone, as is observed for stage I lung adenocarcinoma which has a 65-70% five-year survival (Williams et al., supra; Pairolero et al., supra). Current therapy for patients with stage I disease usually consists of surgical resection and no additional treatment (Williams et al., supra; Pairolero et al., supra). The identification of a high-risk group among patients with stage I disease would lead to consideration of additional therapeutic intervention for this group, as well as leading to improved survival of these patients.

There is a need for additional diagnostic and treatment options, particularly treatments customized to a patient's tumor.

SUMMARY

The present invention relates to customized cancer therapy. In particular, the present invention relates to aptamer-based compositions and methods for identifying, modulating and monitoring drug targets in individual cancers.

For example, in some embodiments, the present disclosure provides a method for identifying protein targets, comprising: a) assaying a biological sample from a subject diagnosed with a disease to identify altered levels of one or more proteins relative to the level of the protein in a reference sample; and b) identifying one or more treatments that targets one or more of the proteins with altered expression. The present disclosure is not limited to particular protein targets. In some embodiments, targets are identified by screening samples for levels of protein expression and comparing the levels to normal (e.g., disease-free) tissue (e.g., using aptamer technology described herein). The invention is not limited by the target identified (e.g., using aptamer technology described herein. In some embodiments, the proteins are selected from, for example, those shown in Tables 6 and 7 or AGER, THBS2, CA3, MMP12, PIGR, DCN, PGAM1, CD36, FABP, ACP5, CCDC80, PPBP, LYVE1, STC1, SPON1, IL17RC, MMP1, CA1, SERPINC1, TPSB2, CKB/CKBM, NAMPT/PBEF, PPBP/CTAPIII, F9, DCTPP1, F5, SPOCK2, CAT, PF4, MDK, BGN, CKM, POSTN, PGLYRP1, or CXCL12. In some embodiments, the reference sample is a sample of normal tissue from the subject, or a population average of normal tissue. In some embodiments, the level of the proteins are altered at least 2-fold (e.g., at least 4-fold, at least 5-fold, at least 10-fold, at least 15-fold, at least 20-fold, at least 25-fold, at least 30-fold, at least 40-fold, at least 50-fold, at least 60-fold, at least 70-fold, at least 80-fold, at least 90-fold, at least 100-fold, or more). In some embodiments, the level of the proteins are altered at least fold 0.5-fold to 0.01-fold (or 0.5, 0.4, 0.3, 0.2, 0.1, 0.09, 0.08, 0.07, 0.06, 0.05, 0.04, 0.03, 0.02 or 0.01 fold). In some embodiments, the method further comprises the step of administering the one or more treatments to the subject. In some embodiments, the method further comprises the step of determining the presence of mutations in the proteins. In some embodiments, the disease is, for example, a cancer (e.g., leukemia, lymphoma, prostate cancer, lung cancer, breast cancer, liver cancer, colorectal cancer, kidney cancer, etc.), a metabolic disorder, an inflammatory disease, or an infectious disease. In some embodiments, the biological sample is selected from, for example, tissue, whole blood, leukocytes, peripheral blood mononuclear cells, buffy coat, plasma, serum, sputum, tears, mucus, nasal washes, nasal aspirate, breath, urine, semen, saliva, peritoneal washings, ascites, cystic fluid, meningeal fluid, amniotic fluid, glandular fluid, pancreatic fluid, lymph fluid, pleural fluid, cytological fluid, nipple aspirate, bronchial aspirate, bronchial brushing, synovial fluid, joint aspirate, organ secretions, cells, a cellular extract, or cerebrospinal fluid. In some embodiments, the drug is, for example, those described herein. In some embodiments, the assaying comprises contacting a sample with a plurality of aptamers specific for the proteins.

Further embodiments provide a method for determining a treatment course of action, comprising: a) assaying a tissue sample from a subject diagnosed with cancer (e.g., lung cancer) to identify altered levels of one or more proteins selected from, for example, AGER, THBS2, CA3, MMP12, PIGR, DCN, PGAM1, CD36, FABP, ACP5, CCDC80, PPBP, LYVE1, STC1, SPON1, IL17RC, MMP1, CA1, SERPINC1, TPSB2, CKB/CKBM, NAMPT/PBEF, PPBP/CTAPIII, F9, DCTPP1, F5, SPOCK2, CAT, PF4, MDK, BGN, CKM, POSTN, PGLYRP1, CXCL12, or a protein shown in Table 6 or 7, relative to the level of the proteins in normal tissue (e.g., normal lung tissue); and b) administering one or more treatments that targets one or more of the proteins with altered expression.

Additional embodiment provide a method for treating a disease, comprising: a) assaying a biological sample from a subject diagnosed with a disease to identify altered levels of one or more proteins relative to the level of the protein in a reference sample; and b) administering one or more treatments that target one or more of the proteins with altered expression to the subject.

Further embodiment provide a method for treating a disease, comprising: a) assaying a biological sample from a subject diagnosed with a disease to identify altered levels of one or more proteins relative to the level of the protein in a reference sample; and b) administering one or more treatments that target one or more of the proteins with altered expression to the subject; and c) repeating the step of assaying the biological sample from a subject diagnosed with a disease to identify altered levels of one or more proteins relative to the level of the protein in a reference sample.

Yet other embodiments provide a method for monitoring treating of a disease, comprising: a) assaying a biological sample from a subject diagnosed with a disease to identify altered levels of one or more proteins relative to the level of the protein in a reference sample; b) administering one or more treatments that target one or more of the proteins with altered expression to the subject; and c) repeating step a) one or more times.

Still further embodiments provide a method for screening test compounds, comprising: a) assaying a biological sample from a subject diagnosed with a disease to identify altered levels of one or more proteins relative to the level of the protein in a reference sample; b) administering one or more test compounds that target or are suspected of targeting one or more of the proteins with altered expression to the subject; and c) repeating step a) one or more times.

The foregoing and other objects, features, and advantages of the invention will become more apparent from the following detailed description, which proceeds with reference to the accompanying figures.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 depicts a dendrogram showing proteins with at least one example of having a 10-fold change (up or down) for tumor tissue to healthy tissue. The data are clustered based on the change in protein level. The tree is labeled by SampleID:Histology (Adeno/Squamous) to show that the two different tumor types (adenocarcinoma and squamous cell carcinoma) do not separate from each other based on protein levels. SampleID indicates the patient sample.

FIG. 2 depicts a dendrogram showing proteins with at least one example of having a 10-fold change (up or down) for tumor tissue to healthy tissue. The data are clustered based on the change in protein level. The tree is labeled by SampleID:Mutation Status, and shows that the samples do not group by mutational status. WT means that no mutations were found out of those tested. ND means mutation profiling was not performed. Those with no mutation listing means the status is unknown. SampleID indicates the patient sample.

FIG. 3 shows a comparison of mRNA expression levels for adeno or squamous tumors versus the protein levels. The data are derived from two different sources: mRNA expression data had adeno and squamous tumors. mRNA levels were averaged across all studies. Protein expression levels were derived from a separate source. Each point represents a single protein and corresponding mRNA. The box in the middle represents those mRNAs and proteins that were removed because they were not at least 2-fold up or down relative to control for either mRNA level or protein level. The boxed dots are those that were not considered to be significantly different in tumor versus normal for both mRNA and protein.

FIG. 4 shows pictographs generated plotting the relative protein expression levels shown in relative fluorescence units (RFU) vs. age (years) of subjects in both non-Duchene muscular dystrophy (DMD) and DMD boys for several proteins that are different between the control and the DMD subjects.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

The present invention relates to customized cancer therapy. In particular, the present invention relates to aptamer-based compositions and methods for identifying, modulating and monitoring drug targets in individual cancers.

The confluence of genomics technologies and the awareness of cancers as diseases driven by somatic and inherited mutations have led to a hope that a combination of pathology and cancer genomics will provide personalized decisions regarding therapeutic interventions. An enormous effort, funded largely by the NCI, will deepen the sequencing of tumor genomes to see major and common drivers of the disease as well as minor groups of cells whose additional somatic mutations will determine prognostics and treatment choices.

Work by others has had a profound impact on the ways one considers tumor genetics. These scientists painstakingly created mouse strains in which transposon mutagenesis is easily induced, and thus driver mutations and subsequent required mutations can be studied for mouse tumor development. The body of work from the Copeland/Jenkins labs is enormous and important. One may conclude from their work that a tumor that requires several mutations on the tumorigenesis pathway can easily suffer those mutations in several different kinetic stages, and single driver mutations can elaborate tumors through different subsequent mutations that take the tumor into different physiological and biochemical states.

The scientific community, through CPTAC, has begun an analysis of tissue proteomics alongside genomics through the TCGA and others. Eight institutions in the United States were funded to do largely Mass Spectrometry as a way into the proteomic phenotypes of cancers, which noted that protein expression was not well correlated with mRNA levels of DNA copy numbers.

Historically cancers have been described as derived from a tissue of origin—lung cancer, prostate cancer, breast cancer, etc. However, to date, it has not been possible to identify, in real time, all of part of a tumor proteome of cancer (e.g., in order to identify and/or characterize protein involvement within individual tumors and cancers).

Embodiments of the present disclosure provide systems and method for identifying proteins with altered expression in individual tumors. The systems and methods provide customized drug targets and individualized therapies for cancer.

I. Definitions

Unless otherwise noted, technical terms are used according to conventional usage. Definitions of common terms in molecular biology may be found in Benjamin Lewin, Genes V, published by Oxford University Press, 1994 (ISBN 0-19-854287-9); Kendrew et al. (eds.), The Encyclopedia of Molecular Biology, published by Blackwell Science Ltd., 1994 (ISBN 0-632-02182-9); and Robert A. Meyers (ed.), Molecular Biology and Biotechnology: a Comprehensive Desk Reference, published by VCH Publishers, Inc., 1995 (ISBN 1-56081-569-8).

In order to facilitate review of the various embodiments of the disclosure, the following explanations of specific terms are provided:

Aptamer: The term aptamer, as used herein, refers to a non-naturally occurring nucleic acid that has a desirable action on a target molecule. A desirable action includes, but is not limited to, binding of the target, catalytically changing the target, reacting with the target in a way that modifies or alters the target or the functional activity of the target, covalently attaching to the target (as in a suicide inhibitor), and facilitating the reaction between the target and another molecule.

Analog: The term analog, as used herein, refers to a structural chemical analog as well as a functional chemical analog. A structural chemical analog is a compound having a similar structure to another chemical compound but differing by one or more atoms or functional groups. This difference may be a result of the addition of atoms or functional groups, absence of atoms or functional groups, the replacement of atoms or functional groups or a combination thereof. A functional chemical analog is a compound that has similar chemical, biochemical and/or pharmacological properties. The term analog may also encompass S and R stereoisomers of a compound.

Bioactivity: The term bioactivity, as used herein, refers to one or more intercellular, intracellular or extracellular process (e.g., cell-cell binding, ligand-receptor binding, cell signaling, etc.) which can impact physiological or pathophysiological processes.

C-5 Modified Pyrimidine: C-5 modified pyrimidine, as used herein, refers to a pyrimidine with a modification at the C-5 position. Examples of a C-5 modified pyrimidine include those described in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,719,273 and 5,945,527. Additional examples are provided herein.

Consensus Sequence: Consensus sequence, as used herein, refers to a nucleotide sequence that represents the most frequently observed nucleotide found at each position of a series of nucleic acid sequences subject to sequence alignment.

Covalent Bond: Covalent bond or interaction refers to a chemical bond that involves the sharing of at least a pair of electrons between atoms.

Modified: The term modified (or modify or modification) and any variations thereof, when used in reference to an oligonucleotide, means that at least one of the four constituent nucleotide bases (i.e., A, G, T/U, and C) of the oligonucleotide is an analog or ester of a naturally occurring nucleotide.

Modulate: The term modulate, as used herein, means to alter the expression level of a peptide, protein or polypeptide by increasing or decreasing its expression level relative to a reference expression level, and/or alter the stability and/or activity of a peptide, protein or polypeptide by increasing or decreasing its stability and/or activity level relative to a reference stability and/or activity level.

Non-covalent Bond: Non-covalent bond or non-covalent interaction refers to a chemical bond or interaction that does not involve the sharing of pairs of electrons between atoms. Examples of non-covalent bonds or interactions includes hydrogen bonds, ionic bonds (electrostatic bonds), van der Waals forces and hydrophobic interactions.

Nucleic Acid: Nucleic acid, as used herein, refers to any nucleic acid sequence containing DNA, RNA and/or analogs thereof and may include single, double and multi-stranded forms. The terms “nucleic acid”, “oligo”, “oligonucleotide” and “polynucleotide” may be used interchangeably.

Pharmaceutically Acceptable: Pharmaceutically acceptable, as used herein, means approved by a regulatory agency of a federal or a state government or listed in the U.S.

Pharmacopoeia or other generally recognized pharmacopoeia for use in animals and, more particularly, in humans.

Pharmaceutically Acceptable Salt: Pharmaceutically acceptable salt or salt of a compound (e.g., aptamer), as used herein, refers to a product that contains an ionic bond and is typically produced by reacting the compound with either an acid or a base, suitable for administering to an individual. A pharmaceutically acceptable salt can include, but is not limited to, acid addition salts including hydrochlorides, hydrobromides, phosphates, sulphates, hydrogen sulphates, alkyl sulphonates, arylsulphonates, arylalkylsulfonates, acetates, benzoates, citrates, maleates, fumarates, succinates, lactates, and tartrates; alkali metal cations such as Li, Na, K, alkali earth metal salts such as Mg or Ca, or organic amine salts.

Pharmaceutical Composition: Pharmaceutical composition, as used herein, refers to formulation comprising a pharmaceutical agent (e.g., drug) in a form suitable for administration to an individual. A pharmaceutical composition is typically formulated to be compatible with its intended route of administration. Examples of routes of administration include, but are not limited to, oral and parenteral, e.g., intravenous, intradermal, subcutaneous, inhalation, topical, transdermal, transmucosal, and rectal administration.

SELEX: The term SELEX, as used herein, refers to generally to the selection for nucleic acids that interact with a target molecule in a desirable manner, for example binding with high affinity to a protein; and the amplification of those selected nucleic acids. SELEX may be used to identify aptamers with high affinity to a specific target molecule. The term SELEX and “SELEX process” may be used interchangeably.

Sequence Identity: Sequence identity, as used herein, in the context of two or more nucleic acid sequences is a function of the number of identical nucleotide positions shared by the sequences (i.e., % identity=number of identical positions/total number of positions×100), taking into account the number of gaps, and the length of each gap that needs to be introduced to optimize alignment of two or more sequences. The comparison of sequences and determination of percent identity between two or more sequences can be accomplished using a mathematical algorithm, such as BLAST and Gapped BLAST programs at their default parameters (e.g., Altschul et al., J. Mol. Biol. 215:403, 1990; see also BLASTN at www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/BLAST). For sequence comparisons, typically one sequence acts as a reference sequence to which test sequences are compared. When using a sequence comparison algorithm, test and reference sequences are input into a computer, subsequence coordinates are designated if necessary, and sequence algorithm program parameters are designated. The sequence comparison algorithm then calculates the percent sequence identity for the test sequence(s) relative to the reference sequence, based on the designated program parameters. Optimal alignment of sequences for comparison can be conducted, e.g., by the local homology algorithm of Smith and Waterman, Adv. Appl. Math., 2:482, 1981, by the homology alignment algorithm of Needleman and Wunsch, J. Mol. Biol., 48:443, 1970, by the search for similarity method of Pearson and Lipman, Proc. Nat'l. Acad. Sci. USA 85:2444, 1988, by computerized implementations of these algorithms (GAP, BESTFIT, FASTA, and TFASTA in the Wisconsin Genetics Software Package, Genetics Computer Group, 575 Science Dr., Madison, Wis.), or by visual inspection (see generally, Ausubel, F. M. et al., Current Protocols in Molecular Biology, pub. by Greene Publishing Assoc. and Wiley-Interscience (1987)). As used herein, when describing the percent identity of a nucleic acid, such as an aptamer, the sequence of which is at least, for example, about 95% identical to a reference nucleotide sequence, it is intended that the nucleic acid sequence is identical to the reference sequence except that the nucleic acid sequence may include up to five point mutations per each 100 nucleotides of the reference nucleic acid sequence. In other words, to obtain a desired nucleic acid sequence, the sequence of which is at least about 95% identical to a reference nucleic acid sequence, up to 5% of the nucleotides in the reference sequence may be deleted or substituted with another nucleotide, or some number of nucleotides up to 5% of the total number of nucleotides in the reference sequence may be inserted into the reference sequence (referred to herein as an insertion). These mutations of the reference sequence to generate the desired sequence may occur at the 5′ or 3′ terminal positions of the reference nucleotide sequence or anywhere between those terminal positions, interspersed either individually among nucleotides in the reference sequence or in one or more contiguous groups within the reference sequence.

SOMAmer: The term SOMAmer, as used herein, refers to an aptamer having improved off-rate characteristics. SOMAmers are alternatively referred to as Slow Off-Rate Modified Aptamers, and may be selected via the improved SELEX methods described in U.S. Publication No. 20090004667, entitled “Method for Generating Aptamers with Improved Off-Rates”, which is incorporated by reference in its entirety.

Spacer Sequence: Spacer sequence, as used herein, refers to any sequence comprised of small molecule(s) covalently bound to the 5′-end, 3′-end or both 5′ and 3′ ends of the nucleic acid sequence of an aptamer. Exemplary spacer sequences include, but are not limited to, polyethylene glycols, hydrocarbon chains, and other polymers or copolymers that provide a molecular covalent scaffold connecting the consensus regions while preserving aptamer binding activity. In certain aspects, the spacer sequence may be covalently attached to the aptamer through standard linkages such as the terminal 3′ or 5′ hydroxyl, 2′ carbon, or base modification such as the CS-position of pyrimidines, or C8 position of purines.

Target Molecule: Target molecule (or target), as used herein, refers to any compound or molecule upon which a nucleic acid can act in a desirable manner (e.g., binding of the target, catalytically changing the target, reacting with the target in a way that modifies or alters the target or the functional activity of the target, covalently attaching to the target (as in a suicide inhibitor), and facilitating the reaction between the target and another molecule). Non-limiting examples of a target molecule include a protein, peptide, nucleic acid, carbohydrate, lipid, polysaccharide, glycoprotein, hormone, receptor, antigen, antibody, virus, pathogen, toxic substance, substrate, metabolite, transition state analog, cofactor, inhibitor, drug, dye, nutrient, growth factor, cell, tissue, any portion or fragment of any of the foregoing, etc. Virtually any chemical or biological effector may be a suitable target. Molecules of any size can serve as targets. A target can also be modified in certain ways to enhance the likelihood or strength of an interaction between the target and the nucleic acid. A target may also include any minor variation of a particular compound or molecule, such as, in the case of a protein, for example, variations in its amino acid sequence, disulfide bond formation, glycosylation, lipidation, acetylation, phosphorylation, or any other manipulation or modification, such as conjugation with a labeling component, which does not substantially alter the identity of the molecule. A “target molecule” or “target” is a set of copies of one type or species of molecule or multimolecular structure that is capable of binding to an aptamer. “Target molecules” or “targets” refer to more than one such set of molecules.

Unless otherwise explained, all technical and scientific terms used herein have the same meaning as commonly understood by one of ordinary skill in the art to which this disclosure belongs. The singular terms “a,” “an,” and “the” include plural referents unless context clearly indicates otherwise. “Comprising A or B” means including A, or B, or A and B. It is further to be understood that all base sizes or amino acid sizes, and all molecular weight or molecular mass values, given for nucleic acids or polypeptides are approximate, and are provided for description.

Further, ranges provided herein are understood to be shorthand for all of the values within the range. For example, a range of 1 to 50 is understood to include any number, combination of numbers, or sub-range from the group consisting 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, or 50 (as well as fractions thereof unless the context clearly dictates otherwise). Any concentration range, percentage range, ratio range, or integer range is to be understood to include the value of any integer within the recited range and, when appropriate, fractions thereof (such as one tenth and one hundredth of an integer), unless otherwise indicated. Also, any number range recited herein relating to any physical feature, such as polymer subunits, size or thickness, are to be understood to include any integer within the recited range, unless otherwise indicated. As used herein, “about” or “consisting essentially of mean±20% of the indicated range, value, or structure, unless otherwise indicated. As used herein, the terms “include” and “comprise” are open ended and are used synonymously. It should be understood that the terms “a” and “an” as used herein refer to “one or more” of the enumerated components. The use of the alternative (e.g., “or”) should be understood to mean either one, both, or any combination thereof of the alternatives

Although methods and materials similar or equivalent to those described herein can be used in the practice or testing of the present disclosure, suitable methods and materials are described below. All publications, patent applications, patents, and other references mentioned herein are incorporated by reference in their entirety. In case of conflict, the present specification, including explanations of terms, will control. In addition, the materials, methods, and examples are illustrative only and not intended to be limiting.

II. Detection Methods

Embodiments of the present disclosure provide methods for detecting protein levels in biological samples. The present disclosure is illustrated with aptamer detection technology. However, the present disclosure is not limited to aptamer detection technology. Any suitable detection method (e.g., immunoassay, mass spectrometry, histological or cytological methods, etc.) is suitable for use herein.

In some embodiments, aptamer based assays involve the use of a microarray that includes one or more aptamers immobilized on a solid support. The aptamers are each capable of binding to a target molecule in a highly specific manner and with very high affinity. See, e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 5,475,096 entitled “Nucleic Acid Ligands”; see also, e.g., U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,242,246, 6,458,543, and 6,503,715, each of which is entitled “Nucleic Acid Ligand Diagnostic Biochip”. Once the microarray is contacted with a sample, the aptamers bind to their respective target molecules present in the sample and thereby enable a determination of a biomarker level corresponding to a biomarker.

Aptamers for use in the disclosure may include up to about 100 nucleotides, up to about 95 nucleotides, up to about 90 nucleotides, up to about 85 nucleotides, up to about 80 nucleotides, up to about 75 nucleotides, up to about 70 nucleotides, up to about 65 nucleotides, up to about 60 nucleotides, up to about 55 nucleotides, up to about 50 nucleotides, up to about 45 nucleotides, up to about 40 nucleotides, up to about 35 nucleotides, up to about 30 nucleotides, up to about 25 nucleotides, and up to about 20 nucleotides.

In another aspect of this disclosure, the aptamer has a dissociation constant (K_(d)) for its target of about 10 nM or less, about 15 nM or less, about 20 nM or less, about 25 nM or less, about 30 nM or less, about 35 nM or less, about 40 nM or less, about 45 nM or less, about 50 nM or less, or in a range of about 3-10 nM (or 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 or 10 nM.

An aptamer can be identified using any known method, including the SELEX process. Once identified, an aptamer can be prepared or synthesized in accordance with any known method, including chemical synthetic methods and enzymatic synthetic methods.

The terms “SELEX” and “SELEX process” are used interchangeably herein to refer generally to a combination of (1) the selection of aptamers that interact with a target molecule in a desirable manner, for example binding with high affinity to a protein, with (2) the amplification of those selected nucleic acids. The SELEX process can be used to identify aptamers with high affinity to a specific target or biomarker.

SELEX generally includes preparing a candidate mixture of nucleic acids, binding of the candidate mixture to the desired target molecule to form an affinity complex, separating the affinity complexes from the unbound candidate nucleic acids, separating and isolating the nucleic acid from the affinity complex, purifying the nucleic acid, and identifying a specific aptamer sequence. The process may include multiple rounds to further refine the affinity of the selected aptamer. The process can include amplification steps at one or more points in the process. See, e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 5,475,096, entitled “Nucleic Acid Ligands”. The SELEX process can be used to generate an aptamer that covalently binds its target as well as an aptamer that non-covalently binds its target. See, e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 5,705,337 entitled “Systematic Evolution of Nucleic Acid Ligands by Exponential Enrichment: Chemi-SELEX.”

The SELEX process can be used to identify high-affinity aptamers containing modified nucleotides that confer improved characteristics on the aptamer, such as, for example, improved in vivo stability or improved delivery characteristics. Examples of such modifications include chemical substitutions at the ribose and/or phosphate and/or base positions. SELEX process-identified aptamers containing modified nucleotides are described in U.S. Pat. No. 5,660,985, entitled “High Affinity Nucleic Acid Ligands Containing Modified Nucleotides”, which describes oligonucleotides containing nucleotide derivatives chemically modified at the 5′- and 2′-positions of pyrimidines. U.S. Pat. No. 5,580,737, see supra, describes highly specific aptamers containing one or more nucleotides modified with 2′-amino (2′-NH2), 2′-fluoro (2′-F), and/or 2′-O-methyl (2′-OMe). See also, U.S. Patent Application Publication No. 2009/0098549, entitled “SELEX and PHOTOSELEX”, which describes nucleic acid libraries having expanded physical and chemical properties and their use in SELEX and photoSELEX.

SELEX can also be used to identify aptamers that have desirable off-rate characteristics. See U.S. Publication No. US 2009/0004667, entitled “Method for Generating Aptamers with Improved Off-Rates”, which describes improved SELEX methods for generating aptamers that can bind to target molecules. Methods for producing aptamers and photoaptamers having slower rates of dissociation from their respective target molecules are described. The methods involve contacting the candidate mixture with the target molecule, allowing the formation of nucleic acid-target complexes to occur, and performing a slow off-rate enrichment process wherein nucleic acid-target complexes with fast dissociation rates will dissociate and not reform, while complexes with slow dissociation rates will remain intact. Additionally, the methods include the use of modified nucleotides in the production of candidate nucleic acid mixtures to generate aptamers with improved off-rate performance. In some embodiments, an aptamer comprises at least one nucleotide with a modification, such as a base modification. In some embodiments, an aptamer comprises at least one nucleotide with a hydrophobic modification, such as a hydrophobic base modification, allowing for hydrophobic contacts with a target protein. Such hydrophobic contacts, in some embodiments, contribute to greater affinity and/or slower off-rate binding by the aptamer.

In some embodiments, an aptamer comprises at least two, at least three, at least four, at least five, at least six, at least seven, at least eight, at least nine, or at least 10 nucleotides with hydrophobic modifications, where each hydrophobic modification may be the same or different from the others.

In some embodiments, a slow off-rate aptamer (including an aptamers comprising at least one nucleotide with a hydrophobic modification) has an off-rate (t_(1/2)) of ≥30 minutes, ≥60 minutes, ≥90 minutes, ≥120 minutes, ≥150 minutes, ≥180 minutes, ≥210 minutes, or ≥240 minutes.

In some embodiments, an assay employs aptamers that include photoreactive functional groups that enable the aptamers to covalently bind or “photocrosslink” their target molecules. See, e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 6,544,776 entitled “Nucleic Acid Ligand Diagnostic Biochip”. These photoreactive aptamers are also referred to as photoaptamers. See, e.g., U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,763,177, 6,001,577, and 6,291,184, each of which is entitled “Systematic Evolution of Nucleic Acid Ligands by Exponential Enrichment: Photoselection of Nucleic Acid Ligands and Solution SELEX”; see also, e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 6,458,539, entitled “Photoselection of Nucleic Acid Ligands”. After the microarray is contacted with a sample and the photoaptamers have had an opportunity to bind to their target molecules, the photoaptamers are photoactivated, and the solid support is washed to remove any non-specifically bound molecules. Harsh wash conditions may be used, since target molecules that are bound to the photoaptamers are generally not removed, due to the covalent bonds created by the photoactivated functional group(s) on the photoaptamers. In this manner, the assay enables the detection of a biomarker level corresponding to a biomarker in the sample.

In some assay formats, the aptamers are immobilized on the solid support prior to being contacted with the sample. Under certain circumstances, however, immobilization of the aptamers prior to contact with the sample may not provide an optimal assay. For example, pre-immobilization of the aptamers may result in inefficient mixing of the aptamers with the target molecules on the surface of the solid support, perhaps leading to lengthy reaction times and, therefore, extended incubation periods to permit efficient binding of the aptamers to their target molecules. Further, when photoaptamers are employed in the assay and depending upon the material utilized as a solid support, the solid support may tend to scatter or absorb the light used to effect the formation of covalent bonds between the photoaptamers and their target molecules. Moreover, depending upon the method employed, detection of target molecules bound to their aptamers can be subject to imprecision, since the surface of the solid support may also be exposed to and affected by any labeling agents that are used. Finally, immobilization of the aptamers on the solid support generally involves an aptamer-preparation step (i.e., the immobilization) prior to exposure of the aptamers to the sample, and this preparation step may affect the activity or functionality of the aptamers.

Aptamer assays or “aptamer based assay(s)” that permit an aptamer to capture its target in solution and then employ separation steps that are designed to remove specific components of the aptamer-target mixture prior to detection have also been described (see U.S. Publication No. 2009/0042206, entitled “Multiplexed Analyses of Test Samples”). The described aptamer assay methods enable the detection and quantification of a non-nucleic acid target (e.g., a protein target) in a test sample by detecting and quantifying a nucleic acid (i.e., an aptamer). The described methods create a nucleic acid surrogate (i.e., the aptamer) for detecting and quantifying a non-nucleic acid target, thus allowing the wide variety of nucleic acid technologies, including amplification, to be applied to a broader range of desired targets, including protein targets.

Aptamers can be constructed to facilitate the separation of the assay components from an aptamer biomarker complex (or photoaptamer biomarker covalent complex) and permit isolation of the aptamer for detection and/or quantification. In one embodiment, these constructs can include a cleavable or releasable element within the aptamer sequence. In other embodiments, additional functionality can be introduced into the aptamer, for example, a labeled or detectable component, a spacer component, or a specific binding tag or immobilization element. For example, the aptamer can include a tag connected to the aptamer via a cleavable moiety, a label, a spacer component separating the label, and the cleavable moiety. In one embodiment, a cleavable element is a photocleavable linker. The photocleavable linker can be attached to a biotin moiety and a spacer section, can include an NHS group for derivatization of amines, and can be used to introduce a biotin group to an aptamer, thereby allowing for the release of the aptamer later in an assay method.

Homogenous assays, done with all assay components in solution, do not require separation of sample and reagents prior to the detection of signal. These methods are rapid and easy to use. These methods generate signal based on a molecular capture or binding reagent that reacts with its specific target. In some embodiments of the methods described herein, the molecular capture reagents comprise an aptamer or an antibody or the like and the specific target may be a biomarker shown in Example 1.

In some embodiments, a method for signal generation takes advantage of anisotropy signal change due to the interaction of a fluorophore-labeled capture reagent with its specific biomarker target. When the labeled capture reacts with its target, the increased molecular weight causes the rotational motion of the fluorophore attached to the complex to become much slower changing the anisotropy value. By monitoring the anisotropy change, binding events may be used to quantitatively measure the biomarkers in solutions. Other methods include fluorescence polarization assays, molecular beacon methods, time resolved fluorescence quenching, chemiluminescence, fluorescence resonance energy transfer, and the like.

An exemplary solution-based aptamer assay that can be used to detect a biomarker level in a biological sample includes the following: (a) preparing a mixture by contacting the biological sample with an aptamer that includes a first tag and has a specific affinity for the biomarker, wherein an aptamer affinity complex is formed when the biomarker is present in the sample; (b) exposing the mixture to a first solid support including a first capture element, and allowing the first tag to associate with the first capture element; (c) removing any components of the mixture not associated with the first solid support; (d) attaching a second tag to the biomarker component of the aptamer affinity complex; (e) releasing the aptamer affinity complex from the first solid support; (f) exposing the released aptamer affinity complex to a second solid support that includes a second capture element and allowing the second tag to associate with the second capture element; (g) removing any non-complexed aptamer from the mixture by partitioning the non-complexed aptamer from the aptamer affinity complex; (h) eluting the aptamer from the solid support; and (i) detecting the biomarker by detecting the aptamer component of the aptamer affinity complex. For example, protein concentration or levels in a sample may be expressed as relative fluorescence units (RFU), which may be a product of detecting the aptamer component of the aptamer affinity complex (e.g., aptamer complexed to target protein create the aptamer affinity complex). That is, for an aptamer-based assay, the protein concentration or level correlates with the RFU.

A nonlimiting exemplary method of detecting biomarkers in a biological sample using aptamers is described in Kraemer et al., PLoS One 6(10): e26332.

Aptamers may contain modified nucleotides that improve it properties and characteristics. Non-limiting examples of such improvements include, in vivo stability, stability against degradation, binding affinity for its target, and/or improved delivery characteristics.

Examples of such modifications include chemical substitutions at the ribose and/or phosphate and/or base positions of a nucleotide. SELEX process-identified aptamers containing modified nucleotides are described in U.S. Pat. No. 5,660,985, entitled “High Affinity Nucleic Acid Ligands Containing Modified Nucleotides,” which describes oligonucleotides containing nucleotide derivatives chemically modified at the 5′- and 2′-positions of pyrimidines. U.S. Pat. No. 5,580,737, see supra, describes highly specific aptamers containing one or more nucleotides modified with 2′-amino (2′-NH₂), 2′-fluoro (2′-F), and/or 2′-O-methyl (2′-OMe). See also, U.S. Patent Application Publication No. 20090098549, entitled “SELEX and PHOTOSELEX,” which describes nucleic acid libraries having expanded physical and chemical properties and their use in SELEX and photoSELEX.

Specific examples of a C-5 modification include substitution of deoxyuridine at the C-5 position with a substituent independently selected from: benzylcarboxyamide (alternatively benzylaminocarbonyl) (Bn), naphthylmethylcarboxyamide (alternatively naphthylmethylaminocarbonyl) (Nap), tryptaminocarboxyamide (alternatively tryptaminocarbonyl) (Trp), and isobutylcarboxyamide (alternatively isobutylaminocarbonyl) (iBu) as illustrated immediately below.

Chemical modifications of a C-5 modified pyrimidine can also be combined with, singly or in any combination, 2′-position sugar modifications, modifications at exocyclic amines, and substitution of 4-thiouridine and the like.

Representative C-5 modified pyrimidines include: 5-(N-benzylcarboxyamide)-2′-deoxyuridine (BndU), 5-(N-benzylcarboxyamide)-2′-O-methyluridine, 5-(N-benzylcarboxyamide)-2′-fluorouridine, 5-(N-isobutylcarboxyamide)-2′-deoxyuridine (iBudU), 5-(N-isobutylcarboxyamide)-2′-O-methyluridine, 5-(N-isobutylcarboxyamide)-2′-fluorouridine, 5-(N-tryptaminocarboxyamide)-2′-deoxyuridine (TrpdU), 5-(N-tryptaminocarboxyamide)-2′-O-methyluridine, 5-(N-tryptaminocarboxyamide)-2′-fluorouridine, 5-(N-[1-(3-trimethylamonium) propyl] carboxyamide)-2′-deoxyuridine chloride, 5-(N-naphthylmethylcarboxyamide)-2′-deoxyuridine (NapdU), 5-(N-naphthylmethylcarboxyamide)-2′-O-methyluridine, 5-(N-naphthylmethylcarboxyamide)-2′-fluorouridine or 5-(N-[1-(2,3-dihydroxypropyl)]carboxyamide)-2′-deoxyuridine).

If present, a modification to the nucleotide structure can be imparted before or after assembly of the polynucleotide. A sequence of nucleotides can be interrupted by non-nucleotide components. A polynucleotide can be further modified after polymerization, such as by conjugation with a labeling component.

Additional non-limiting examples of modified nucleotides (e.g., C-5 modified pyrimidine) that may be incorporated into the nucleic acid sequences of the present disclosure include the following:

R′ is defined as follows:

And, R″, R′″ and R″″ are defined as follows:

-   -   wherein     -   R″″ is selected from the group consisting of a. branched or         linear lower alkyl (C1-C20); halogen (F, Cl, Br, I); nitrile         (CN); boronic acid (BO₂H₂); carboxylic acid (COOH); carboxylic         acid ester (COOR″); primary amide (CONH₂); secondary amide         (CONHR″); tertiary amide (CONR″R′″); sulfonamide (SO₂NH₂);         N-alkylsulfonamide (SONHR″).     -   wherein     -   R″, R′″ are independently selected from a group consisting of a         branched or linear lower alkyl (C1-C2)); phenyl (C₆H₅); an R″″         substituted phenyl ring (R″″C₆H₄); wherein R″″ is defined above;         a carboxylic acid (COOH); a carboxylic acid ester (COOR′″″);         wherein R′″″ is a branched or linear lower alkyl (C1-C20); and         cycloalkyl; wherein R″═R′″═(CH₂)_(n); wherein n=2-10.

Further, C-5 modified pyrimidine nucleotides include the following:

In some embodiments, the modified nucleotide confers nuclease resistance to the oligonucleotide. A pyrimidine with a substitution at the C-5 position is an example of a modified nucleotide. Modifications can include backbone modifications, methylations, unusual base-pairing combinations such as the isobases isocytidine and isoguanidine, and the like. Modifications can also include 3′ and 5′ modifications, such as capping. Other modifications can include substitution of one or more of the naturally occurring nucleotides with an analog, internucleotide modifications such as, for example, those with uncharged linkages (e.g., methyl phosphonates, phosphotriesters, phosphoamidates, carbamates, etc.) and those with charged linkages (e.g., phosphorothioates, phosphorodithioates, etc.), those with intercalators (e.g., acridine, psoralen, etc.), those containing chelators (e.g., metals, radioactive metals, boron, oxidative metals, etc.), those containing alkylators, and those with modified linkages (e.g., alpha anomeric nucleic acids, etc.). Further, any of the hydroxyl groups ordinarily present on the sugar of a nucleotide may be replaced by a phosphonate group or a phosphate group; protected by standard protecting groups; or activated to prepare additional linkages to additional nucleotides or to a solid support. The 5′ and 3′ terminal OH groups can be phosphorylated or substituted with amines, organic capping group moieties of from about 1 to about 20 carbon atoms, polyethylene glycol (PEG) polymers in one embodiment ranging from about 10 to about 80 kDa, PEG polymers in another embodiment ranging from about 20 to about 60 kDa, or other hydrophilic or hydrophobic biological or synthetic polymers. In one embodiment, modifications are of the C-5 position of pyrimidines. These modifications can be produced through an amide linkage directly at the C-5 position or by other types of linkages.

Polynucleotides can also contain analogous forms of ribose or deoxyribose sugars that are generally known in the art, including 2′-0-methyl-, 2′-0-allyl, 2′-fluoro- or 2′-azido-ribose, carbocyclic sugar analogs, a-anomeric sugars, epimeric sugars such as arabinose, xyloses or lyxoses, pyranose sugars, furanose sugars, sedoheptuloses, acyclic analogs and abasic nucleoside analogs such as methyl riboside. As noted above, one or more phosphodiester linkages may be replaced by alternative linking groups. These alternative linking groups include embodiments wherein phosphate is replaced by P(O)S (“thioate”), P(S)S (“dithioate”), (O)NR₂ (“amidate”), P(O)R, P(O)OR′, CO or CH₂ (“formacetal”), in which each R or R′ is independently H or substituted or unsubstituted alkyl (1-20 C) optionally containing an ether (—O—) linkage, aryl, alkenyl, cycloalky, cycloalkenyl or araldyl. Not all linkages in a polynucleotide need be identical. Substitution of analogous forms of sugars, purines, and pyrimidines can be advantageous in designing a final product, as can alternative backbone structures like a polyamide backbone, for example.

The following examples are provided to illustrate certain particular features and/or embodiments. These examples should not be construed to limit the disclosure to the particular features or embodiments described.

The present disclosure provides kits comprising aptamers described herein. Such kits can comprise, for example, (1) at least one aptamer for identification of a protein target; and (2) at least one pharmaceutically acceptable carrier, such as a solvent or solution. Additional kit components can optionally include, for example: (1) any of the pharmaceutically acceptable excipients identified herein, such as stabilizers, buffers, etc., (2) at least one container, vial or similar apparatus for holding and/or mixing the kit components; and (3) delivery apparatus.

III. Personalized Therapeutic and Research Uses

In some embodiments, the present disclosure provides systems and methods for identifying proteins with altered expression in subjects with disease relative to subjects that do not have the disease. In some embodiments, proteins with altered expression serve as targets for drug screening and therapeutic applications. For example, in some embodiments, customized treatment is provided that is individualized to the proteomic profile of an individual subject's disease.

In some embodiments, proteins with altered expression are identified as targets for drug discovery. In some embodiments, proteins with existing drugs that target them are identified and such drugs are administered (alone or in combination with other drugs) to a subject. Thus, in some embodiments, the present disclosure provides customized treatment for a disease or condition.

In some embodiments, protein expression is compared to a reference sample from a disease-free subject or population of subjects. In some embodiments, the reference sample is sample of normal tissue from the subject, or a population average of normal tissue. In some embodiments, the level of the proteins is altered at least 2-fold (e.g., at least 4-fold, at least 5-fold, at least 10-fold, at least 20-fold, at least 50-fold, at least 100-fold, or more).

The present disclosure is suitable for identification of altered protein expression (e.g., using the assays described herein) in a variety of sample types. Examples include, but are not limited to, tissue, whole blood, leukocytes, peripheral blood mononuclear cells, buffy coat, plasma, serum, sputum, tears, mucus, nasal washes, nasal aspirate, breath, urine, semen, saliva, peritoneal washings, ascites, cystic fluid, meningeal fluid, amniotic fluid, glandular fluid, pancreatic fluid, lymph fluid, pleural fluid, cytologic fluid, nipple aspirate, bronchial aspirate, bronchial brushing, synovial fluid, joint aspirate, organ secretions, cells, a cellular extract, or cerebrospinal fluid.

The present disclosure is not limited to the identification of targets for a particular disease. In some embodiments, the disease is, for example, a cancer, a neoplasm, a tumor, and/or a metastatic form therein, a metabolic disorder, an inflammatory disease, or an infectious disease. In some embodiments, the cancer, neoplasm, tumor, or metastatic form therein is, for example, leukemia, lymphoma, prostate cancer, lung cancer, breast cancer, liver cancer, colorectal cancer, or kidney cancer. In some embodiments, the disease is lung cancer and the drug targets are one or more of AGER, THBS2, CA3, MMP12, PIGR, DCN, PGAM1, CD36, FABP, ACP5, CCDC80, PPBP, LYVE1, STC1, SPON1, IL17RC, MMP1, CA1, SERPINC1, TPSB2, CKB/CKBM, NAMPT/PBEF, PPBP/CTAPIII, F9, DCTPP1, F5, SPOCK2, CAT, PF4, MDK, BGN, CKM, POSTN, PGLYRP1, or CXCL12. In some embodiments, the drug targets and drugs are those shown in Tables 6 and 7.

In some embodiments, a computer-based analysis program is used to translate the raw data generated by the detection assay (e.g., the presence, absence, or amount of a given marker or markers) into data of value for a clinician (e.g., drug targets or drug(s) selection). The clinician can access the data using any suitable means. Thus, in some preferred embodiments, the present invention provides the further benefit that the clinician, who is not likely to be trained in genetics or molecular biology, need not understand the raw data. The data is presented directly to the clinician in its most useful form. The clinician is then able to immediately utilize the information in order to optimize the care of the subject.

The present invention contemplates any method capable of receiving, processing, and transmitting the information to and from laboratories conducting the assays, information providers, medical personal, and subjects. For example, in some embodiments of the present invention, a sample (e.g., a biopsy or other sample) is obtained from a subject and submitted to a profiling service (e.g., clinical lab at a medical facility, genomic profiling business, etc.), located in any part of the world (e.g., in a country different than the country where the subject resides or where the information is ultimately used) to generate raw data. Where the sample comprises a tissue or other biological sample, the subject may visit a medical center to have the sample obtained and sent to the profiling center, or subjects may collect the sample themselves (e.g., a urine sample) and directly send it to a profiling center. Where the sample comprises previously determined biological information, the information may be directly sent to the profiling service by the subject (e.g., an information card containing the information may be scanned by a computer and the data transmitted to a computer of the profiling center using an electronic communication systems). Once received by the profiling service, the sample is processed and a profile is produced (e.g., protein expression data), specific for the diagnostic, therapeutic, or prognostic information desired for the subject.

The profile data is then prepared in a format suitable for interpretation by a treating clinician. For example, rather than providing raw expression data, the prepared format may represent a suggested treatment course of action (e.g., specific drugs for administration). The data may be displayed to the clinician by any suitable method. For example, in some embodiments, the profiling service generates a report that can be printed for the clinician (e.g., at the point of care) or displayed to the clinician on a computer monitor.

In some embodiments, the information is first analyzed at the point of care or at a regional facility. The raw data is then sent to a central processing facility for further analysis and/or to convert the raw data to information useful for a clinician or patient. The central processing facility provides the advantage of privacy (all data is stored in a central facility with uniform security protocols), speed, and uniformity of data analysis. The central processing facility can then control the fate of the data following treatment of the subject. For example, using an electronic communication system, the central facility can provide data to the clinician, the subject, or researchers.

In some embodiments, the subject is able to directly access the data using the electronic communication system. The subject may chose further intervention or counseling based on the results. In some embodiments, the data is used for research use. For example, the data may be used to further optimize the inclusion or elimination of markers as useful indicators of a treatment outcome or for drug discovery.

Some exemplary biomarkers and drugs that target the altered expression of the biomarker are described herein (See e.g., WO 2010/0028288; herein incorporated by reference in its entirety. The markers and drugs described herein are not limiting. Additional markers and drugs are specifically contemplated.

For example, in some embodiment, c-kit (also known as CD117, KIT, PBT, SCFR), Bcr-Abl fusion, platelet derived growth factor receptor (PDGFR), are targeted with imatinib mesylate (Gleevec); PDGFR is targeted with Sutent (Sunitib or SUI 1248), a receptor tyrosine kinase inhibitor; secreted protein acidic and rich in cysteine (SPARC; also known as ON, osteonectin) is targeted with Abraxane; HSP90 (also known as HSPN; LAP2; HSP86; HSPC1; HSPCA; Hsp89; HSP89A; HSP90A; HSP90N; HSPCAL1; HSPCAL4; FLB1884; HSP90AA1) is targeted with CNF2024 (BIIB021); MGMT (0-6-methylguanine-DNA methyltransferase) is targeted with temozolomide (Temodar, Temodal); HER2 (also known as ERBB2, NED, NGL, TKR1, CD340, HER-2, HER-2/neu) is targeted with trastuzumab (Herceptin); human epidermal growth factor receptor 1 (also known as HER1, EGFR, ERBB, mENA, ERBB1, PIG61) is targeted with Erlotinib (Tarceva), gefitinib, panitumumab (Vectibix), lapatinib, or cetuximab (Erbitux); vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) is targeted with Bevacizumab (Avastin); ER (also known as estrogen receptor; ESR; Era; ESRA; NR3A1; DKFZp686N23 123; ESR1) is targeted with hormonal therapeutics (e.g., ER blockers such as tamoxifen, or aromatase inhibitors, such as anastrozole); PR (also known as progesterone receptor; NR3C3; PGR) is targeted with is targeted with hormonal therapeutics (e.g., ER blockers such as tamoxifen, or aromatase inhibitors, such as anastrozole); vras and Kras are targeted with bevacizumab (Avastin); TOPO1 (also known as DNA topoisomerase; TOPI; TOP1) is targeted with fluorouracil (5-FU; FSU; Adrucil) with or without irinotecan or oxaliplatin; Phosphatase and Tensin Homolog (PTEN) is targeted with cetuximab (Erbitux) or panitumumab (Vectibix); PIK3CA is targeted with cetuximab (Erbitux) or panitumumab (Vectibix); Kras (also known as v-Ki-ras2 Kirsten rat sarcoma viral oncogene homolog; NS3; KRAS1; KRAS2; RASK2; KI-RAS; C-K-RAS; K-RAS2A; K-RAS2B; K-RAS4A; K-RAS4B) is targeted with bevacizumab (Avastin), cetuximab (Erbitux), erlotinib (Tarceva), gefitinib (Iressa), or panitumumab (Vectibix); Nrf2 (also known as nuclear factor (erythroid-derived 2)-like 2; NFE2L2) is targeted with doxorubicin (Adriamycin); DPD (also known as dihydropyrimidine dehydrogenase; DHP; DHPDHASE; MGC70799; MGC132008; DPYD) is targeted with fluorouracil (5-FU); OPRT (also known as uridine monophosphate synthetase; LIMPS uridine monophosphate synthase; OPRtase; OMPdecase; UMP synthase; orotidine 5′-phosphate decarboxylase; orotate phosphoribosyltransferase phosphoribosyltransferase; orotate phosphoribosyl transferase; orotidine-5′decarboxylase) is targeted with 5-FU; TS (also known as thymidylate synthetase; TMS; TSase; HsT422; MGC88736; TYMS) is targeted with 5-FU; BRAF is targeted with cetuximab (Erbitux) or panitumumab (Vectibix); thymidylate synthase is targeted with 5-FU; or those described in Tables 6 or 7.

The present disclosure further provides for a method for identifying one or more patient subpopulations from a plurality of patients diagnosed with the same disease or condition, the method comprising: detecting the level of one or more proteins in a biological sample from each patient of the plurality of patients; comparing the level of the one or more proteins from each patient within the plurality of patients, and identifying one or more patient subpopulations, wherein each patient subpopulation of the one or more patient subpopulations is distinguished from another patient subpopulation based on the difference in the level of the one or more proteins, and wherein the difference in the level of the one or more proteins is selected from the group consisting of at least from 2-fold to 100-fold (or 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99 or 100) and at least from 0.5-fold to 0.01-fold (or 0.5, 0.4, 0.3, 0.2, 0.1, 0.09, 0.08, 0.07, 0.06, 0.05, 0.04, 0.03, 0.02 or 0.01 fold).

The present disclosure further provides for a method for selecting one or more drugs to treat a subject having a disease or condition, the method comprising: acquiring knowledge of the level of one or more proteins in a biological sample from the subject, wherein at least one of the one or more proteins is a drug target; and selecting one or more drugs to treat the subject based on the level of the one or more proteins, wherein at least one drug of the one or more drugs is a drug to at least one of the one or more proteins.

In another aspect, the selecting one or more drugs to treat the subject is based on the difference in the level of the one or more proteins from the subject compared to the level of the respective one or more proteins from a reference biological sample, subject or population, and wherein the difference is at least from 2-fold to 100-fold (or 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99 or 100 fold).

In another aspect, the selecting one or more drugs to treat the subject is based on the difference in the level of the one or more proteins from the subject compared to the level of the respective one or more proteins from a reference biological sample, subject or population, and wherein the difference is at least from 0.5-fold to 0.01-fold (or 0.5, 0.4, 0.3, 0.2, 0.1, 0.09, 0.08, 0.07, 0.06, 0.05, 0.04, 0.03, 0.02 or 0.01 fold).

In another aspect, the method further comprises administering the one or more drugs to the subject, thereby treating the disease or condition in the subject.

In another aspect, the method further comprises selecting the one or more drugs to treat the subject based on acquiring knowledge of one or more complete or partial gene sequences of the subject.

In another aspect, the method further comprises selecting the one or more drugs to treat the subject based on acquiring knowledge of one or more genetic mutations from the subject.

In another aspect, the disease or condition is selected from the group consisting of a cancer, a metabolic disorder, an inflammatory disease and an infectious disease.

In another aspect, the biological sample is selected from the group consisting of whole blood, leukocytes, peripheral blood mononuclear cells, buffy coat, plasma, serum, sputum, tears, mucus, nasal washes, nasal aspirate, breath, urine, semen, saliva, peritoneal washings, ascites, cystic fluid, meningeal fluid, amniotic fluid, glandular fluid, pancreatic fluid, lymph fluid, pleural fluid, cytologic fluid, nipple aspirate, bronchial aspirate, bronchial brushing, synovial fluid, joint aspirate, organ secretions, cells, a cellular extract and cerebrospinal fluid.

The present disclosure further provides for method for selecting one or more drugs to treat a subject having a disease or condition, the method comprising: detecting the level of one or more proteins in a biological sample from the subject, wherein, at least one of the one or more proteins is a drug target; and selecting one or more drugs to treat the subject based on the level of the one or more proteins, wherein at least one drug of the one or more drugs is a drug to at least one of the one or more proteins.

In another aspect, the selecting one or more drugs to treat the subject is based on the difference in the level of the one or more proteins from the subject compared to the level of the respective one or more proteins from a reference biological sample, subject or population, wherein the difference is at least from 2-fold to 100-fold (or 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99 or 100 fold). In another aspect, the selecting one or more drugs to treat the subject is based on the difference in the level of the one or more proteins from the subject compared to the level of the respective one or more proteins from a reference biological sample, subject or population, and wherein the difference is at least from 0.5-fold to 0.01-fold (or 0.5, 0.4, 0.3, 0.2, 0.1, 0.09, 0.08, 0.07, 0.06, 0.05, 0.04, 0.03, 0.02 or 0.01 fold).

In another aspect, the method further comprises administering the one or more drugs to the subject, thereby treating the disease or condition in the subject.

In another aspect, the method further comprises selecting the one or more drugs to treat the subject based on acquiring knowledge of one or more complete or partial gene sequences of the subject.

In another aspect, the method further comprises selecting the one or more drugs to treat the subject based on acquiring knowledge of one or more genetic mutations from the subject. In another aspect, the disease or condition is selected from the group consisting of a cancer, a metabolic disorder, an inflammatory disease and an infectious disease.

In another aspect, the biological sample is selected from the group consisting of whole blood, leukocytes, peripheral blood mononuclear cells, buffy coat, plasma, serum, sputum, tears, mucus, nasal washes, nasal aspirate, breath, urine, semen, saliva, peritoneal washings, ascites, cystic fluid, meningeal fluid, amniotic fluid, glandular fluid, pancreatic fluid, lymph fluid, pleural fluid, cytologic fluid, nipple aspirate, bronchial aspirate, bronchial brushing, synovial fluid, joint aspirate, organ secretions, cells, a cellular extract and cerebrospinal fluid.

In another aspect, the detecting the level of one or more proteins in a biological samples is performed by an assay selected from the group consisting of an aptamer-based assay, an antibody based assay and a mass spectrometry assay.

The present disclosure further provides for a treatment plan for a subject having a disease or condition comprising: one or more drugs, wherein the selection of the one or more drugs is based on the level of one or more proteins, wherein at least one of the one or more proteins is a drug target, and wherein at least one drug of the one or more drugs is a drug to at least one of the one or more proteins; and administering the one or more drugs to the subject, thereby treating the disease or condition in the subject.

In another aspect, the selecting one or more drugs to treat the subject is based on the difference in the level of the one or more proteins from the subject compared to the level of the respective one or more proteins from a reference biological sample, subject or population, wherein the difference is at least from 2-fold to 100-fold (or 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99 or 100 fold). In another aspect, the selecting one or more drugs to treat the subject is based on the difference in the level of the one or more proteins from the subject compared to the level of the respective one or more proteins from a reference biological sample, subject or population, and wherein the difference is at least from 0.5-fold to 0.01-fold (or 0.5, 0.4, 0.3, 0.2, 0.1, 0.09, 0.08, 0.07, 0.06, 0.05, 0.04, 0.03, 0.02 or 0.01 fold).

In another aspect, the method further comprises administering the one or more drugs to the subject, thereby treating the disease or condition in the subject.

In another aspect, the method further comprises selecting the one or more drugs to treat the subject based on acquiring knowledge of one or more complete or partial gene sequences of the subject.

In another aspect, the method further comprises selecting the one or more drugs to treat the subject based on acquiring knowledge of one or more genetic mutations from the subject.

In another aspect, the disease or condition is selected from the group consisting of a cancer, a metabolic disorder, an inflammatory disease and an infectious disease.

In another aspect, the biological sample is selected from the group consisting of whole blood, leukocytes, peripheral blood mononuclear cells, buffy coat, plasma, serum, sputum, tears, mucus, nasal washes, nasal aspirate, breath, urine, semen, saliva, peritoneal washings, ascites, cystic fluid, meningeal fluid, amniotic fluid, glandular fluid, pancreatic fluid, lymph fluid, pleural fluid, cytologic fluid, nipple aspirate, bronchial aspirate, bronchial brushing, synovial fluid, joint aspirate, organ secretions, cells, a cellular extract and cerebrospinal fluid. In another aspect, the detecting the level of one or more proteins in a biological samples is performed by an assay selected from the group consisting of an aptamer-based assay, an antibody based assay and a mass spectrometry assay.

In another aspect, the one or more drugs is selected from the group consisting of 4-Aminosalicylic_acid, Abatacept, Abciximab, Acetaminophen, Acetazolamide, Acetohydroxamic_acid, Adalimumab, Adenine, Adenosine_monophosphate, Adenosine_triphosphate, Afatinib, Aflibercept, Alclometasone, Aldesleukin, Alefacept, Alemtuzumab, Aliskiren, Alpha_1-antitrypsin, Alteplase, Aluminium, Amcinonide, Amiloride Aminocaproic_acid, Aminophylline, Amitriptyline, Amlodipine, Amrinone, Anagrelide, Anakinra, Anistreplase, Antihemophilic_Factor, Antrafenine, Apixaban, Aprotinin, Ardeparin, Argatroban, Arsenic_trioxide, Aspirin, Atorvastatin, Auranofin, Avanafil, Axitinib, Bacitracin Balsalazide, Basiliximab, Becaplermin, Beclometasone_dipropionate, Belatacept, Belimumab, Bendroflumethiazide, Betamethasone, Bevacizumab, Bivalirudin, Bosutinib, Brentuximab_vedotin, Brinzolamide, Bromfenac, Budesonide, Cabozantinib, Canakinumab, Capecitabine, Capromab, Captopril, Carbidopa, Carbimazole, Carprofen, Carvedilol, Cefazolin, Cefdinir, Celecoxib, Certolizumab_pegol, Cetuximab, Chloramphenicol, Chloroquine, Chlorothiazide, Chlorotrianisene, Ciclesonide, Cilostazol, Clenbuterol, Clobetasol_propionate, Clocortolone, Clomifene, Clomipramine, Cortisone_acetate, Creatine, Cyclosporine, Cysteamine, Dabigatran, Dacarbazine, Daclizumab, Dalteparin_sodium, Danazol, Darbepoetin_alfa, Dasatinib, Denileukin_diftitox, Denosumab, Desogestrel, Desonide, Desoximetasone, Dexamethasone, Dextrothyroxine, Diazoxide, Dichlorphenamide, Diclofenac, Dienestrol, Diethylstilbestrol, Diflorasone, Diflunisal, Difluprednate, Dipyridamole, Docetaxel, Dorzolamide, Drotrecogin_alfa, Eculizumab, Efalizumab, Eicosapentaenoic_acid, Eltrombopag, Enoxaparin, Enoximone, Epoetin alfa, Eptifibatide, Equilin, Erlotinib, Erythropoietin, Estradiol Estramustine, Estriol, Estrone, Estropipate, Etanercept, Ethinamate, Ethinylestradiol, Ethoxzolamide, Ethynodiol diacetate, Etodolac, Etonogestrel, Etoricoxib, Factor_IX, Factor_VII, Fenoprofen, Filgrastim, Floxuridine, Fludrocortisone, Fludroxycortide, Flunisolide, Fluocinolone_acetonide, Fluocinonide, Fluorometholone, Fluorouracil, Fluoxymesterone, Flurbiprofen, Fluticasone_furoate, Fluticasone_propionate, Fluvastatin, Fomepizole, Fondaparinux_sodium, Fulvestrant, Furosemide, Gadopentetate_dimeglumine, Gefitinib, Gemcitabine, Gemtuzumab_ozogamicin, Ginkgo_biloba, Ginseng, Gliclazide, Glucosamine, Glutathione, Golimumab, Heparin, Hyaluronidase, Hydrochlorothiazide, Hydrocortisone, Hydroxocobalamin, Ibritumomab, Ibudilast, Ibuprofen, Iloprost, Imatinib, Indomethacin, Infliximab, Ingenol_mebutate, Inhaled_insulin, Insulin, Insulin_aspart, Insulin_detemir, Insulin_glargine, Insulin_glulisine, Insulin_lispro, Interferon_gamma-1b, Ipilimumab, Irinotecan, Isoproterenol, Ketoprofen, Ketorolac, Ketotifen, Lapatinib, L-Aspartic_Acid, L-Carnitine, L-Cysteine, Lenalidomide, Lepirudin, Leucovorin, Levonorgestrel, Levosimendan, Lidocaine, Lisinopril, Lithium, L-Leucine, Loperamide, Lornoxicam, Loteprednol, Lovastatin, L-Proline, Lucanthone, Lumiracoxib, Magnesium salicylate, Marimastat, Meclofenamic_acid, Medroxyprogesterone, Medrysone, Mefenamic_acid, Megestrol, Melatonin, Meloxicam, Menadione, Mesalazine, Mestranol, Metformin, Methazolamide, Methimazole, Methocarbamol, Methyl_aminolevulinate, Methylprednisolone, Mifepristone, Milrinone, Mimosine, Minocycline,

Moexipril, Mometasone, Muromonab, Mycophenolate_mofetil, Mycophenolic_acid, Nabumetone, Naloxone, Naproxen, Natalizumab, Nedocromil, Nepafenac, Nilotinib, Nitroxoline, Norgestimate, NPH_insulin, Ocriplasmin, Olsalazine, Oprelvekin, Ornithine, Ospemifene, Oxaprozin, Oxtriphylline, Paclitaxel, Palifermin, Paliperidone, Palivizumab, Panitumumab, Paramethasone, Pazopanib, Pegaptanib, Pegfilgrastim, Peginesatide, Pemetrexed, Pentoxifylline, Pertuzumab, Phenazone, Phenelzine, Phenformin, Phenylbutazone, Phosphatidylserine, Piroxicam, Pitavastatin, Pomalidomide, Ponatinib, Porfimer, Pralatrexate, Pranlukast, Pravastatin, Prednicarbate, Prednisolone, Prednisone, Proflavine, Progesterone, Propylthiouracil, Pyruvic_acid, Quinestrol, Quinethazone, Raloxifene, Raltitrexed, Ranibizumab, Rasagiline, Regorafenib, Remikiren, Reteplase, Ribavirin, Rifabutin, Rilonacept, Rimexolone, Rituximab, Rivaroxaban, Roflumilast, Romiplostim, Rosuvastatin, Ruxolitinib, Salicyclic_acid, Sargramostim, Sildenafil, Simvastatin, Sirolimus, Sodium hyaluronate, Sodium_salicylate, Sodium_stibogluconate, Somatropin_recombinant, Sorafenib, Streptokinase, Sucralfate, Sulfasalazine, Sulindac, Sulodexide, Sunitinib, Suprofen, Suramin, Tadalafil, Tamoxifen, Tenecteplase, Thalidomide, Theophylline, Tiaprofenic_acid, Tiludronate, Tirofiban, Tocilizumab, Tofacitinib, Tofisopam, Tolmetin, Topiramate, Topotecan, Toremifene, Tositumomab, Trametinib, Tranexamic_acid, Trastuzumab, Trastuzumab_emtansine, Triamcinolone, Trifluridine, Trilostane, Trimethoprim, Udenafil, Urokinase, Vandetanib, Vardenafil, Vitamin_E, Vorinostat, WF10, Ximelagatran, Zonisamide and a combination thereof.

The present disclosure further provides for a method for identifying a drug target, the method comprising: acquiring knowledge of the level of one or more proteins in a biological sample from a subject; and selecting at least one of the one or more proteins as a target for drug development; wherein, the at least one of the one or more proteins selected as a target is selected based on the difference in the level of the at least one of the one or more proteins from the biological sample from the subject compared to the level of the respective at least one of the one or more proteins from a reference biological sample, subject or population, and wherein the difference in the level of the one or more proteins is selected from the group consisting of at least from 2-fold to 100-fold (or 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99 or 100) and at least from 0.5-fold to 0.01-fold (or 0.5, 0.4, 0.3, 0.2, 0.1, 0.09, 0.08, 0.07, 0.06, 0.05, 0.04, 0.03, 0.02 or 0.01 fold).

In another aspect, the at least one of the one or more proteins selected as a target for drug development is not a drug target.

The present disclosure further provides for a method for identifying a drug target, the method comprising: detecting the level of one or more proteins in a biological sample from a subject; and selecting at least one of the one or more proteins as a target for drug development;

wherein, the at least one of the one or more proteins selected as a target is selected based on the difference in the level of the at least one of the one or more proteins from the biological sample from the subject compared to the level of the respective at least one of the one or more proteins from a reference biological sample, subject or population, and wherein the difference in the level of the one or more proteins is selected from the group consisting of at least from 2-fold to 100-fold (or 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99 or 100) and at least from 0.5-fold to 0.01-fold (or 0.5, 0.4, 0.3, 0.2, 0.1, 0.09, 0.08, 0.07, 0.06, 0.05, 0.04, 0.03, 0.02 or 0.01 fold).

EXAMPLES Example 1

Materials and Methods

Tumor Specimens

Lung cancer tumor tissue and matched non-tumor tissue were harvested at the time of surgical resection and stored frozen in the Colorado SPORE in Lung Cancer Tissue Bank. Pathological inspection was performed on 29 of the tumor samples to determine the proportion of the tissue that contained inflammation, necrosis or stroma. The average and interquartile (IQR) range for these parameters were: inflammation 16% (IQR 5-20%), necrosis 10% (IQR 0-15%), and stroma 31% (IQR 20-40%).

Proteomic Sample Preparation and Tumor Mutation Detection

Protein lysates were prepared from 63 tumor and matched non-tumor tissue as described (Mehan 2012). Multiplexed single nucleotide extension sequencing (SNaPshot, Life Technologies), which involves multiplexed PCR, mutiplexed single-base primer extension, and capillary electrophoresis, was performed on 49 of the tumors (Doebele 2012, Su 2011). The mutations detected by the SNaPshot panel are listed in table 1.

TABLE 1 SNaPshot Multiplex Mutation Panel AKT1 E17K APC R1114*, Q1338*, R1450*, T1556NinsA CTNNB1 D32Y, D32H, D32N, D32V, D32G, S33Y, S33F, S33C, G34V, G34E, S37P, S37A, S37F, S37Y, S37C, T41A, T41S, T41P, T41N, T41I, S45P, S45A, S45F, S45Y, S45C BRAF G466V, G469A, L597V, V600E, V600M KIT D816V EGFR G719S, G719C, G719A, del_746-750, T790M, L858R, L861Q FLT3 D835Y JAK2 V617F KRAS G12R, G12S, G12D, G12V, G12A, G13D, G13A, G13S, G13R, G13C, Q61H, Q61K, G61L, Q61R MAP2K1 Q56P, K57N, D67N NRAS G12S, G12R, G12C, G12D, G12A, G12V, G13S, G13R, G13C, G13D, G13A, G13V, Q61K, Q61L, Q61R NOTCH1 L1575Q, L1575P, H1601 PIK3CA R88Q, Q546K, Q546E, Q546R, Q546P, H1047R, H1047Y, G1049S PTEN R130G, R130*, R173C, R233*, K297fs TP53 R175L, R175H, G245S, G245R, G245C, R248W, R248G, R248Q, R248P, R248L, R273C, R273L, R273H, R306*

Proteomic Analysis

Tissue lysates (2 ug total protein/sample) were analyzed with the SOMAscan V3 proteomic assay, which measures 1,129 proteins (Gold 2010). The SOMAscan analytes cover a broad range of proteins associated with disease physiology and biological functions, including cytokines, kinases, growth factors, proteases and their inhibitors, receptors, hormones and structural proteins (Mehan 2013). SOMAscan uses novel modified DNA aptamers called SOMAmers to specifically bind protein targets in biologic samples (Gold 2010, Vaught 2010). All sample analyses were conducted in a Good Laboratory Practice (GLP) compliant lab at Somalogic as described (Kraemer 2011). The samples were distributed randomly in the assay and the assay operators were blinded to the identity of all samples. Microarray images were captured and processed with a microarray scanner and associated software. Each sample in the study was normalized by aligning the median of each sample to a common reference. Inter-plate and inter-run calibration was done by applying a multiplicative scaling coefficient to each SOMAmer.

Statistical Analysis Data

All data were derived from the lung cancer tissue study known as the Lungevity study, CL-13-012. SOMAscan data for a number of paired samples consisting of tumor tissue or presumably normal adjacent tissue were obtained. Data were selected from the raw data file for further analysis as follows:

-   -   Some samples are duplicated and those values were averaged to         produce the final data used for analysis.     -   Data from the file were limited to only those tumor samples         labeled as ‘Adeno’ or ‘Squamous’ and their cognate normal         sample.     -   Some cases exist where one or the other cognate pair is not         present, and those unpaired samples were removed.         The final data collection contained 63 paired samples. Paired         sample data were converted to ratios by dividing the tumor         sample RFU value by the control sample RFU value.

Response Algorithm

A cutoff was defined to apply to the ratio data. Values were linked to the threshold value and change in sync with user changes. The number of samples found above or below, respectively, this threshold was calculated for each protein individually. The number of proteins found above or below, respectively, the threshold value for each sample was tabulated individually. The data table is sorted from left to right in decreasing order of the values tabulated. Effectively, this leads to an ordering of the proteins by the number of samples found outside the given threshold. The following data was then extracted:

-   -   The number of samples outside threshold (up or down) for each         protein;     -   The number of proteins (up or down) outside threshold for each         sample;     -   The newly ordered GeneName:SomamerID values;     -   Annotations for each GeneName:SomamerID (sp., full protein name,         drug list, and pathway information);     -   The newly ordered table of ratio values.

Conditional formatting is programmatically applied to the ratio data table in order to illustrate those values which are over-expressed above the threshold or under-expressed below the threshold.

Demographic Tables are shown in Tables 2-4 below

TABLE 2 Tumor Histology and Stage Histology Adeno Squamous Stage (n = 45) (n = 18) Total I A 21 6 27 I B 8 6 14 II A 7 2 9 II B 3 2 5 III A 6 2 8

TABLE 3 Mutations Identified* Histology Mutation Adeno Squamous Total APC 1 0 1 BRAF 3 0 3 EGFR 5 0 5 KRAS 13 0 13 PIK3CA 0 2 2 TP53 0 2 2 None Found 17 6 23 No Data 6 8 14 *Two tumors had both PIK3CA and KRAS mutations and one tumor had both KRAS and TP53 mutations.

TABLE 4 Patient Characteristics* Parameter Count Median Age (IQR) 68.5 (61-76) Gender Male 34 (59%) Female 24 (41%) Tobacco User Current 12 (22%) Former 37 (67%) Never 6 (11%) Median Pack Years (IQR) 45 (27-62)

Results

1,170 proteins were measured in two samples (NSCLC, the tumors, and adjacent healthy lung tissue) from 63 people, for a total of 63×2×1,129=142,254 measurements. For small tumors, the entire tumor was sampled, while for larger tumors a piece was homogenized. In some experiments, larger tumors are subdivided into samples at whatever distances are possible. Unlike antibodies, SOMAmers are identified through a variant of the SELEX method and are made of modified DNA. SOMAmers recognize conformational epitopes on the target proteins. A few of the menu SOMAmers were identified with rodent proteins that are nearly identical to their human homologue. SOMAmers are analogous to the antigen-combining sites of antibodies, they are monovalent, and they bind with high affinity and dissociate slowly from their target proteins. Spike and recovery experiments have shown that in plasma, serum, and buffer, spikes lead to higher signals in the SOMAscan assay. Pull-downs in plasma or serum with the menu SOMAmer identified the target protein by both gels and Mass Spec as the intended analyte. SOMAscan yields data in fluorescent units, such that comparisons can be made between two tissues with ease (providing Relative Fluorescent Units—RFUs—that can be compared). Standard curves are used to convert RFUs to an approximate absolute protein when desired.

Relative protein levels that are more than 4-fold up or down in the tumors compared to the healthy tissue were selected; this level of change was selected in this study because an analyte that shows more than 4-fold up or down was not considered likely to represent a “false discovery.” However, the present invention is not so limited. For example, in other embodiments, a fold change (e.g., up or down) of less than 4-fold (e.g., 3-fold, 2-fold, or lower) or more than 4-fold (e.g., 5-fold, 10-fold, 100-fold, or higher) may be used. Of the 1,129 proteins measured for 63 pairs of tissues on SOMAscan, 2 proteins were up or down 4-fold or more for 51 pairs of samples (of the 63 pairs), 2 other proteins were up or down 4-fold or more for 40 pairs of samples, 4 other proteins were up or down 4-fold or more for 30 pairs of samples, 27 other proteins were up or down 4-fold or more for 20 pairs of samples, 81 other proteins were up or down 4-fold or more for 10 pairs of samples, and 415 other proteins were up or down 4-fold or more for fewer than 10 pairs (but for at least one pair). More than 600 proteins were not up or down 4-fold or more in any pair. These data are shown in FIG. 1 .

A total of 35 proteins were up or down 4-fold or more in 20 pairs of tissue, with more proteins up or down in fewer sample pairs. The largest class of proteins was in no sample pair up or down 4-fold or more.

When the data was observed in heat maps of clusters to compare proteomics for mutations, pathology and stages, as well as clustering by the protein levels themselves, no obvious clusters emerge when forced by the standard definitions of NSCLC.

The Top 35 Proteins that Distinguish NSCLC from Healthy Lung Tissue

Of the 35 proteins which were the top biomarkers in the study (Table 5) (“top” equals the proteins that are different between tumors and healthy adjacent tissue by 4-fold or more in 20 pairs or more), two proteins distinguish between squamous cell carcinoma and adenocarcinoma. For the overwhelming majority of biomarkers, adenocarcinoma and squamous cell carcinoma appear to be very similar cancers.

No correlations were found between the mutations and the levels of these 35 proteins. Some tumors with the same pathology and the identical KRAS mutations—in one such tumor 190 proteins were over or under expressed by four-fold or more, and in another tumor with the same pathology and KRAS mutation only 3 proteins were four-fold more or less abundant.

TABLE 5 Protein name N/63 Up or Down Squamous/Adeno AGER 51 Down Same THBS2 51 Up Same CA3 45 Down Same MMP12 41 Up Same PIGR 37 Mixed Different DCN 35 Mixed Same PGAM1 32 Up Same CD36 30 Down Same FABP* 29 Down Same ACP5 29 Down Same CCDC80 29 Mixed Same PPBP 28 Down Same LYVE1 28 Down Same STC1 28 Up Same SPON1 27 Down Same IL17RC 26 Down Same MMP1 26 Up Same CA1 25 Down Same SERPINC1 25 Down Same TPSB2 25 Down Same CKB/CKBM 25 Down Same NAMPT/PBEF 25 Up Same PPBP/CTAPIII 23 Down Same F9 23 Down Same DCTPP1 23 Up Same F5 23 Down Same SPOCK2 23 Down Same CAT 21 Down Same PF4 21 Down Same MDK 21 Up Same BGN 21 Down Same CKM 21 Down Same POSTN 20 Up Same PGLYRP1 20 Mixed Different CXCL12 20 Down Same Proteins that Distinguish NSCLC from Healthy Tissue

Further analysis was conducted on proteins that show different concentrations less frequently between tumor and healthy tissue. Differences between tumors and healthy adjacent tissues were neither correlated with pathology or genetics.

Drug Interventions

Proteins that are elevated in individual tumors are targets for a drug (e.g., existing or new drug), whether that drug was developed for cancer or not. In some embodiments, existing drugs are utilized. In some embodiments, other proteins in the same pathways as targets identified herein are targeted.

Of the 1,129 proteins analyzed, 690 (61%) displayed at least a 4-fold difference with one or more of the paired samples. The 63 tumors displayed a continuum of the number of proteins, up or down 4-fold compared with healthy tissue, from 3 to 190.

Some of the drugs provided herein are already approved for cancer patients. Others are approved but not for cancer. Trials are designed to assess their value as individualized therapeutics. In other cases unapproved inhibitors are starting points for development of new drugs that are used for individually targeted tumors.

At the highest view of the data, both the similarities and diversities in tumor-specific expression protein concentrations were observed.

NSCLC's (and other cancer types) show common proteins that are both elevated and reduced in concentrations. These proteins are generally related to processes that drive most cancers: cell-autonomous growth rates and the ability to overcome contact inhibition, capacity to grow under limited oxygen levels as they exceed the local blood supply, defenses against immune and inflammatory surveillance, invasiveness and metastatic potential, and other processes (e.g., the capacity to utilize the lymphatic system as a source of nutrients when the blood supply is inhibited by angiogenesis intervention). Among the common proteins with elevated concentrations, proteins expected to be “ups” were not found—these expectations are summarized by the modes of actions of several cancer drugs, which turn out to not be useful, frequently, in large numbers of patients with NSCLC.

NSCLC's (and other cancer types) show elevated levels of rare proteins that allow the required cancer processes, both known and unknown. The data show that several tumors that differ in every possible way and seem to have no difficulties being a tumor by all extant definitions.

Thus, the present invention provides that, in some embodiments, the tumor proteome is independent of the pathology report and the mutations that may have caused the tumor and which may still be present—critically or not—in the tumor. The properties required for cancer growth and metastasis, are, in some embodiments, different than the properties (e.g., genes) utilized in the early stages of tumor formation. In some embodiments, the invention provides that the final proteomic state of a cancer is driven by selection in an individual and not by selection in a mouse or a petri dish; individuals present the personalized environment against which selection occurs.

Accordingly, in some embodiments, the present invention provides methods for physicians and patients to obtain SOMAscan analyses of their tumors relative to the healthy tissues from which the tumor was derived. Reports to the physicians and patients include every protein that is present at altered levels relative to controls and the pathway within which that protein is found, along with drugs that antagonize or agonize the protein or pathway of interest. In some embodiments, an elevated protein is a driver of the cancer, and a drug may be available that antagonizes the protein or pathway. In some embodiments, no drug may yet be approved that antagonizes that protein or pathway, but as clinical trial for such a therapeutic NSCLC may be available. In some embodiments, an approved drug may exist aimed at that protein for a different disease—another cancer or something completely different—and in that case the physician and the patient may discuss the advantages and disadvantages of such a treatment.

In some embodiments, a patient's tumor does not display properties or characteristics of protein or pathway that may respond to a standard treatment, but does display an increase of a protein in the tumor that would be inhibited by an approved drug for NSCLC (e.g., a topoisomerase, for example, or a metalloprotease).

Tables 6 through 10 provides the protein name and corresponding UniProt identifier and any drugs that target the protein for five (5) different individuals (Subjects A, B, C, D and E). If no drugs are known to target the protein, then the table cell is left blank or contains the language “(None found)”. Further provided is the fold difference in expression of each protein in the individual as determined by the protein expression level in tumor tissue versus protein expression level in normal or healthy tissue from the same individual.

Table 6 shows a protein expression profile generated using compositions and methods of the invention from a single patient (Subject A) with lung cancer (adenocarcinoma). By way of example, the protein Lactotransferrin (UniProt P02788) was found to be down-regulated in tumor tissue about 10-fold (as expressed in the table as 0.1) relative to the same protein in normal or healthy tissue from the same individual. While at this time, this protein does not have a known drug, the Lactotransferin protein may be selected for drug development based on the differential expression levels between tumor tissue and healthy tissue.

By way of example, the protein Carbonic Anhydrase I (UnitProt 00915) was found to be down-regulated in tumor tissue about 7.7-fold (as expressed in the table as 0.13) relative to the same protein in normal or healthy tissue from the same individual. The Carbonic Anhydrase I has several known drug that target this protein (e.g., Hydrochlorothiazide, Quinethazone, Benzthiazide, Diazoxide, Trichlormethiazide, Methocarbamol, Amlodipine, Bendroflumethiazide, Brinzolamide, Dichlorphenamide, Methazolamide, Ethinamate, Hydroflumethiazide, Acetazolamide, Cyclothiazide, Zonisamide, Ethoxzolamide, Chlorothiazide, Methyclothiazide and Dorzolamide. Consequently, this individual may be responsive to a drug treatment plan that may include one or more of the drugs identified in the table 6. Thus, by way of example, a drug treatment plan for this individual may be developed by selecting one or more protein(s) that have differential expression between tumor tissue and healthy tissue of at least 7-fold (or at least 0.14 difference), and providing a drug treatment plan based on the drugs that target this particular protein.

By way of another example, the protein Hepatocyte Growth Factor or HGF (UniProt P08581) was found to be up-regulated in tumor tissues relative to normal or healthy tissue by about 7-fold (or 6.96 fold). This protein may be targeted by the drug Cabozantinib. Consequently, this individual may be responsive to a drug treatment plan that may include Cabozantinib. Thus, by way of example, a drug treatment plan for this individual may be developed by selecting one or more protein(s) that have differential expression between tumor tissue and healthy tissue of at least about 6 or 7-fold and providing a drug treatment plan based on the drugs that target this particular protein.

TABLE 6 Proteomic profile for a single individual (Subject A) based on proteins having at least a 4-fold difference in expression between tumor tissue and normal tissue. Based on this threshold cut-off, this individual had 57 proteins with at least a 4-fold (either up or down) difference in tumor to healthy tissue protein expression levels. Protein Expression UniProt Protein Name Drug List (Tumor/Normal) P02788 Lactotransferrin 0.10 P01008 Antithrombin-III Tinzaparin, Dalteparin, Nadroparin, Fondaparinux 0.11 sodium, Sulodexide, Ardeparin, Enoxaparin, Heparin P05186 Alkaline (None found) 0.13 phosphatase, tissue-nonspecific isozyme P00915 Carbonic Hydrochlorothiazide, Quinethazone, Benzthiazide, 0.13 anhydrase I Diazoxide, Trichlormethiazide, Methocarbamol, Amlodipine, Bendroflumethiazide, Brinzolamide, Dichlorphenamide, Methazolamide, Ethinamate, Hydroflumethiazide, Acetazolamide, Cyclothiazide, Zonisamide, Ethoxzolamide, Chlorothiazide, Methyclothiazide, Dorzolamide O43866 CD5 antigen-like 0.13 P05164 Myeloperoxidase Mesalazine, Melatonin, L-Carnitine, Cefdinir 0.14 P02775 Connective-tissue 0.14 activating peptide III P07451 Carbonic Zonisamide, Acetazolamide 0.14 anhydrase 3 P24158 Myeloblastin 0.14 P55774 C-C motif 0.14 chemokine 18 Q92563 Testican-2 0.14 P02775 Neutrophil- 0.15 activating peptide 2 P22749 Granulysin 0.15 Q8NAC3 Interleukin-17 0.15 receptor C P01024 C3a anaphylatoxin Intravenous Immunoglobulin 0.16 des Arginine O75594 Peptidoglycan 0.17 recognition protein P01024 Complement C3 Intravenous Immunoglobulin 0.17 P04040 Catalase Fomepizole 0.17 O75144 B7 homolog 2 0.17 P01024 Complement C3b, Intravenous Immunoglobulin 0.17 incactivated Q14624 Inter-alpha-trypsin 0.18 inhibitor heavy chain H4 P03952 Plasma kallikrein 0.18 (precursor) P14780 Matrix Captopril, Glucosamine, Minocycline, Marimastat 0.18 metalloproteinase- 9 P0C0L4 C4b-A 0.19 P0C0L5 P00747 Plasminogen Streptokinase, Anistreplase, Aminocaproic Acid, 0.20 Urokinase, Reteplase, Alteplase, Aprotinin, Tranexamic Acid, Tenecteplase P01031 Complement C5 Eculizumab, Intravenous Immunoglobulin 0.20 P00740 Coagulation factor Menadione, Antihemophilic Factor 0.20 IX (activated form) P02671 Fibrinogen alpha, 0.20 P02675 beta, and gamma P02679 chains P02776 Platelet factor 4 Drotrecogin alfa 0.20 P07225 Vitamin K- Menadione, Sodium Tetradecyl Sulfate, Drotrecogin alfa 0.21 dependent protein S Q15109 Advanced 0.22 glycosylation end product-specific receptor P27918 Properdin 0.23 P07288, Prostate-specific 0.23 P01011 antigen and Alpha- 1-antichymotrypsin P48061 Stromal cell- Tinzaparin 0.23 derived factor 1 P00747 Angiostatin Streptokinase, Anistreplase, Aminocaproic Acid, 0.23 Urokinase, Reteplase, Alteplase, Aprotinin, Tranexamic Acid, Tenecteplase Q16627 C-C motif 0.23 chemokine 14 P02647 Apolipoprotein A-I 0.23 Q04756 Hepatocyte growth 0.23 factor activator Q15848 Adiponectin 0.24 Q9Y5Y7 Lymphatic vessel 0.24 endothelial hyaluronic acid receptor 1 P00740 Coagulation factor Menadione, Antihemophilic Factor 0.24 IX P10646 Tissue factor Dalteparin, Coagulation factor VIIa 0.25 pathway inhibitor P01042 Kininogen-1, 0.25 HMW P26927 Hepatocyte growth 0.25 factor-like protein precursor P02735 Serum amyloid A 4.11 protein P24821 Tenascin 4.13 Q13554 Calcium/calmodulin- 4.32 dependent protein kinase type II beta chain Q13557 Calcium/calmodulin- 4.51 dependent protein kinase type II delta chain P21741 Midkine 5.15 Q9UQM7 Calcium/calmodulin- 5.27 dependent protein kinase type II alpha chain Q6UXM1 Leucine-rich 5.66 repeats and immunoglobulin- like domains protein 3 P08581 Hepatocyte growth Cabozantinib 6.96 factor receptor Q8N1Q1 Carbonic Zonisamide 7.42 anhydrase 13 Q9UJ71 C-type lectin 7.73 domain family 4 member K P18669 Phosphoglycerate 12.24 mutase 1 Q07654 Trefoil factor 3 14.60 P35442 Thrombospondin-2 16.96

In summary, the general approach described above may be applied to anyone of the protein-drug combinations described in Table 6 to develop a drug treatment plan or to administer the drug or drugs to the individual based on their proteomic profile (differential protein expression levels—“up” or “down” and the fold-level of that difference). Further, the approach may be used to identify proteins that may be drug targets for the treatment of individuals or groups of individuals that may share the same protein differential expression profile or profile range (i.e., have at least about a 4-fold, 5-fold, 6-fold, 7-fold, 8-fold and up to 100-fold or more in expression difference of the same protein as between tumor tissue and healthy/normal tissue).

Table 7 shows a protein expression profile generated using compositions and methods of the invention from a single patient (Subject B) with lung cancer (adenocarcinoma). By way of example, the protein Tryptase-beta-2 (UniProt P20231) was found to be down-regulated in tumor tissue about 33-fold (as expressed in the table as 0.03) relative to the same protein in normal or healthy tissue from the same individual. While at this time, this protein does not have a known drug, the Tryptase-beta-2 protein may be selected for drug development based on the differential expression levels between tumor tissue and healthy tissue.

By way of example, the protein Carbonic Anhydrase 3 (UniProt P07451) was found to be down-regulated in tumor tissue about 25-fold (as expressed in the table as 0.04) relative to the same protein in normal or healthy tissue from the same individual. The Carbonic Anhydrase 3 has known drugs that target this protein (e.g., Zonisamide and Acetazolamide). Consequently, this individual may be responsive to a drug treatment plan that may include Zonisamide and/or Acetazolamide. Thus, by way of example, a drug treatment plan for this individual may be developed by selecting one or more protein(s) that have differential expression between tumor tissue and healthy tissue of at least 25-fold (or at least 0.04 difference), and providing a drug treatment plan based on the drugs that target this particular protein.

By way of another example, the protein C3a anaphylatoxin (UniProt P01024) was found to be up-regulated in tumor tissues relative to normal or healthy tissue by about 49-fold (or 49.04 fold). This protein may be targeted by the drug Intravenous Immunoglobulin. Consequently, this individual may be responsive to a drug treatment plan that may include Intravenous Immunoglobulin. Thus, by way of example, a drug treatment plan for this individual may be developed by selecting one or more protein(s) that have differential expression between tumor tissue and healthy tissue of at least about 49-fold and providing a drug treatment plan based on the drugs that target this particular protein.

TABLE 7 Proteomic profile for a single individual (Subject B) based on proteins having at least a 4-fold difference in expression between tumor tissue and normal tissue. Based on this threshold cut-off, this individual had 69 proteins with at least a 4-fold (either up or down) difference in tumor to healthy tissue protein expression levels. Protein Expression Uniprot Protein Name: Drug List: (Tumor/Normal) Q15109 Advanced glycosylation end (None found) 0.01 product-specific receptor P20231 Tryptase beta-2 (None found) 0.03 P07451 Carbonic anhydrase 3 Zonisamide, Acetazolamide 0.04 Q9HCB6 Spondin-1 (None found) 0.05 P01833 Polymeric (None found) 0.08 immunoglobulin receptor P62826 GTP-binding nuclear (None found) 0.10 protein Ran P13686 Tartrate-resistant acid (None found) 0.11 phosphatase type 5 P11387 DNA topoisomerase Irinotecan, Topotecan, Lucanthone, 0.13 1 Sodium stibogluconate Q06187 Tyrosine-protein (None found) 0.14 kinase BTK P07483 Fatty acid-binding (None found) 0.14 protein, heart_RAT Q96KQ7 Histone-lysine N- (None found) 0.15 methyltransferase, H3 lysine-9 specific 3 #N/A Creatine kinase B- (None found) 0.15 type, Creatine kinase M-type P02776 Platelet factor 4 Drotrecogin alfa 0.17 Q8NAC3 Interleukin-17 (None found) 0.17 receptor C Q13557 Calcium/calmodulin- (None found) 0.20 dependent protein kinase type II delta chain P02775 Neutrophil-activating (None found) 0.20 peptide 2 P07585 Decorin (None found) 0.20 P48061 Stromal cell-derived Tinzaparin 0.20 factor 1 P02775 Connective-tissue (None found) 0.20 activating peptide III P20718 Granzyme H (None found) 0.21 #N/A Glycogen synthase (None found) 0.21 kinase-3 alpha/beta P00568 Myokinase, human (None found) 0.22 P09211 Glutathione S- Glutathione, Clomipramine 0.22 transferase Pi Q9UQM7 Calcium/calmodulin- (None found) 0.23 dependent protein kinase type II alpha chain Q13219 Pappalysin-1 (None found) 0.23 Q02083 N-acylethanolamine- (None found) 0.23 hydrolyzing acid amidase Q13554 Calcium/calmodulin- (None found) 0.23 dependent protein kinase type II beta chain P62081 40S ribosomal (None found) 0.23 protein S7 P21860 Receptor tyrosine- (None found) 0.24 protein kinase erbB-3 Q9UIK4 Death-associated (None found) 0.24 protein kinase 2 O95219 Sorting nexin-4 (None found) 0.24 Q99983 Osteomodulin (None found) 4.02 O75144 B7 homolog 2 (None found) 4.02 Q76M96 Coiled-coil domain- (None found) 4.35 containing protein 80 Q9UBT3 Dickkopf-related (None found) 4.52 protein 4 P02741 C-reactive protein inhaled insulin 4.59 P24821 Tenascin (None found) 4.64 Q9GZN4 Brain-specific serine (None found) 4.77 protease 4 P02788 Lactotransferrin (None found) 5.04 O15123 Angiopoietin-2 (None found) 5.22 P80188 Neutrophil (None found) 5.26 gelatinase-associated lipocalin P18428 Lipopolysaccharide- (None found) 5.39 binding protein P09237 Matrilysin Marimastat 5.81 P0C0S5 Histone H2A.z (None found) 6.56 P14780 Matrix Captopril, Glucosamine, 6.68 metalloproteinase-9 Minocycline, Marimastat O94907 Dickkopf-related (None found) 7.19 protein 1 P08476 Inhibin beta A chain (None found) 7.90 P20160 Azurocidin (None found) 8.29 O75509 Death receptor 6 (None found) 8.80 P98066 TNF-stimulated gene (None found) 8.80 6 protein P42702 Leukemia inhibitory (None found) 9.51 factor soluble receptor (secreted) P02751 Fibronectin-1 Ocriplasmin 10.22 Fragment 4 Q9HD89 Resistin (None found) 10.54 P02768 Serum albumin (None found) 10.78 P01033 Metalloproteinase (None found) 12.20 inhibitor 1 P02751 Fibronectin Ocriplasmin 12.95 P78380 Oxidized low-density (None found) 14.13 lipoprotein receptor 1 P05164 Myeloperoxidase Mesalazine, Melatonin, 14.42 L-Carnitine, Cefdinir P17213 Bactericidal (None found) 17.67 permeability- increasing protein P02751 Fibronectin-1 Ocriplasmin 18.73 Fragment 3 P05121 Plasminogen Anistreplase, Urokinase, 20.02 Reteplase, Alteplase, activator inhibitor 1 Tenecteplase, Drotrecogin alfa P52823 Stanniocalcin-1 (None found) 20.90 O75594 Peptidoglycan (None found) 22.73 recognition protein P03956 MMP-1 Marimastat 23.09 P02778 Small-inducible (None found) 27.72 cytokine B10 P35442 Thrombospondin-2 (None found) 39.69 P10145 Interleukin-8 (None found) 42.05 P01024 C3a anaphylatoxin Intravenous Immunoglobulin 49.04 P39900 Macrophage Acetohydroxamic Acid, Marimastat 116.16 metalloelastase

In summary, the general approach described above may be applied to anyone of the protein-drug combinations described in Table 7 to develop a drug treatment plan or to administer the drug or drugs to the individual based on their proteomic profile (differential protein expression levels—“up” or “down” and the fold-level of that difference). Further, the approach may be used to identify proteins that may be drug targets for the treatment of individuals or groups of individuals that may share the same protein differential expression profile or profile range (i.e., have at least about a 4-fold, 5-fold, 6-fold, 7-fold, 8-fold and up to 100-fold or more in expression difference of the same protein as between tumor tissue and healthy/normal tissue).

Table 8 shows a protein expression profile generated using compositions and methods of the invention from a single patient (Subject C) with lung cancer (adenocarcinoma). By way of example, the protein Advanced glycosylation end product-specific receptor (UniProt Q15109) was found to be down-regulated in tumor tissue about 100-fold (as expressed in the table as 0.01) relative to the same protein in normal or healthy tissue from the same individual. While at this time, this protein does not have a known drug, the Advanced glycosylation end product-specific receptor protein may be selected for drug development based on the differential expression levels between tumor tissue and healthy tissue.

By way of example, the protein Coagulation Factor X (UniProt P00742) was found to be down-regulated in tumor tissue about 5-fold (as expressed in the table as 0.2) relative to the same protein in normal or healthy tissue from the same individual. The Coagulation Factor X has known drugs that target this protein (e.g., Fondaparinux sodium, Menadione, Enoxaparin, Coagulation factor VIIa, Antihemophilic Factor, Rivaroxaban, Apixaban, Coagulation Factor IX and Heparin). Consequently, this individual may be responsive to a drug treatment plan that may include Zonisamide and/or Acetazolamide. Thus, by way of example, a drug treatment plan for this individual may be developed by selecting one or more protein(s) that have differential expression between tumor tissue and healthy tissue of at least 5-fold (or at least 0.2 difference), and providing a drug treatment plan based on the drugs that target this particular protein.

By way of another example, the protein Matrilysin (UniProt P09237) was found to be up-regulated in tumor tissues relative to normal or healthy tissue by about 5-fold (or 5.23 fold). This protein may be targeted by the drug Marimastat. Consequently, this individual may be responsive to a drug treatment plan that may include Marimastat. Thus, by way of example, a drug treatment plan for this individual may be developed by selecting one or more protein(s) that have differential expression between tumor tissue and healthy tissue of at least about 5-fold and providing a drug treatment plan based on the drugs that target this particular protein.

TABLE 8 Proteomic profile for a single individual (Subject C) based on proteins having at least a 4-fold difference in expression between tumor tissue and normal tissue. Based on this threshold cut-off, this individual had 86 proteins with at least a 4-fold (either up or down) difference in tumor to healthy tissue protein expression levels. Protein Expression Uniprot Protein Name: Drug List: (Tumor/Normal) Q15109 Advanced (None found) 0.01 glycosylation end product- specific receptor P02787 Serotransferrin Aluminium 0.05 P21810 Biglycan (None found) 0.09 O43866 CD5 antigen-like (None found) 0.09 Q14624 Inter-alpha- (None found) 0.10 trypsin inhibitor heavy chain H4 Q8NAC3 Interleukin-17 (None found) 0.11 receptor C P00915 Carbonic Hydrochlorothiazide, Quinethazone, Benzthiazide, 0.12 anhydrase I Diazoxide, Trichlormethiazide, Methocarbamol, Amlodipine, Bendroflumethiazide, Brinzolamide, Dichlorphenamide, Methazolamide, Ethinamate, Hydroflumethiazide, Acetazolamide, Cyclothiazide, Zonisamide, Ethoxzolamide, Chlorothiazide, Methyclothiazide, Dorzolamide P02647 Apolipoprotein (None found) 0.12 A-I P02775 Neutrophil- (None found) 0.13 activating peptide 2 P04040 Catalase Fomepizole 0.13 Q04756 Hepatocyte (None found) 0.13 growth factor activator P01042 Kininogen-1, (None found) 0.14 HMW P03952 Plasma kallikrein (None found) 0.14 (precursor) P05164 Myeloperoxidase Mesalazine, Melatonin, L-Carnitine, Cefdinir 0.14 P02775 Connective- (None found) 0.14 tissue activating peptide III O75594 Peptidoglycan (None found) 0.14 recognition protein P07451 Carbonic Zonisamide, Acetazolamide 0.14 anhydrase 3 P02788 Lactotransferrin (None found) 0.14 #N/A C4b-A (None found) 0.15 P05546 Heparin cofactor 2 Ardeparin, Sulodexide 0.15 P01031 Complement C5 Eculizumab, Intravenous Immunoglobulin 0.15 P01019 Angiotensinogen (None found) 0.15 P07585 Decorin (None found) 0.15 P00747 Plasminogen Streptokinase, Anistreplase, Aminocaproic Acid, 0.15 Urokinase, Reteplase, Alteplase, Aprotinin, Tranexamic Acid, Tenecteplase P43652 Afamin (None found) 0.16 P04278 Sex hormone- (None found) 0.16 binding globulin P07225 Vitamin K- Menadione, Sodium Tetradecyl Sulfate, Drotrecogin alfa 0.16 dependent protein S #N/A Fibrinogen (None found) 0.16 alpha, beta, and gamma chains P02790 Hemopexin (None found) 0.16 Q9Y5Y7 Lymphatic (None found) 0.16 vessel endothelial hyaluronic acid receptor 1 P05543 Thyroxine- (None found) 0.16 binding globulin Q9UGM5 Fetuin-B (None found) 0.16 P27918 Properdin (None found) 0.16 Q15848 Adiponectin (None found) 0.17 P12259 Coagulation ART-123, Drotrecogin alfa 0.17 Factor V P00751 Complement (None found) 0.17 factor B P05186 Alkaline (None found) 0.17 phosphatase, tissue- nonspecific isozyme P00747 Angiostatin Streptokinase, Anistreplase, Aminocaproic Acid, 0.17 Urokinase, Reteplase, Alteplase, Aprotinin, Tranexamic Acid, Tenecteplase P04196 Histidine-rich (None found) 0.18 glycoprotein P16671 Platelet (None found) 0.18 glycoprotein 4 P02649 Apolipoprotein E Serum albumin iodonated, Human Serum Albumin 0.18 (isoform E3) P06681 Complement C2 (None found) 0.18 P01024 Complement Intravenous Immunoglobulin 0.18 C3b, incactivated Q01638 Interleukin-1 (None found) 0.19 receptor-like 1 P07483 Fatty acid- (None found) 0.19 binding protein, heart RAT P00742 Coagulation Fondaparinux sodium, Menadione, Enoxaparin, Coagulation 0.19 factor X factor VIIa, Antihemophilic Factor, Rivaroxaban, (activated form) Apixaban, Coagulation Factor IX, Heparin P02748 Complement (None found) 0.19 component C9 P01008 Antithrombin-III Tinzaparin, Dalteparin, Nadroparin, Fondaparinux 0.19 sodium, Sulodexide, Ardeparin, Enoxaparin, Heparin #N/A Complement (None found) 0.19 C1q subcomponent subunits A, B, and C P26927 Hepatocyte (None found) 0.19 growth factor- like protein precursor P08603 Complement (None found) 0.19 factor H P02649 Apolipoprotein E Serum albumin iodonated, Human Serum Albumin 0.19 (isoform E2) #N/A Creatine kinase (None found) 0.19 B-type, Creatine kinase M-type P01042 Kininogen-1, (None found) 0.19 HMW Q96IY4 Carboxypeptidase (None found) 0.20 B2 P29622 Kallistatin (None found) 0.20 P00742 Coagulation Fondaparinux sodium, Menadione, Enoxaparin, Coagulation 0.20 Factor X factor VIIa, Antihemophilic Factor, Rivaroxaban, Apixaban, Coagulation Factor IX, Heparin P02748 Complement (None found) 0.21 component C9 P17213 Bactericidal (None found) 0.21 permeability- increasing protein P01011 Alpha-1- (None found) 0.21 antichymotrypsin P13671 Complement (None found) 0.22 component C6 P24592 Insulin-like (None found) 0.22 growth factor- binding protein 6 #N/A Complement (None found) 0.22 C5b, and Complement component C6 P01023 Alpha-2- Ocriplasmin, Bacitracin, Becaplermin 0.22 macroglobulin P05156 Complement (None found) 0.22 factor I P24158 Myeloblastin (None found) 0.23 P35247 Pulmonary (None found) 0.23 surfactant- associated protein D P03951 Coagulation Coagulation Factor IX 0.23 factor XI P22749 Granulysin (None found) 0.23 P01024 Complement C3 Intravenous Immunoglobulin 0.23 P05154 Plasma serine Urokinase, Drotrecogin alfa 0.24 protease inhibitor P01024 C3a Intravenous Immunoglobulin 0.24 anaphylatoxin des Arginine #N/A Ferritin heavy (None found) 0.24 and light chains Q8N474 Secreted (None found) 0.24 frizzled-related protein 1 P14543 Nidogen-1 Urokinase 0.24 P18428 Lipopolysac- (None found) 0.24 charide-binding protein P02649 Apolipoprotein E Serum albumin iodonated, Human Serum Albumin 0.24 (isoform E4) P02775 Neutrophil- (None found) 0.25 activating peptide 2 P11387 DNA Irinotecan, Topotecan, Lucanthone, Sodium 4.03 topoisomerase 1 stibogluconate Q99731 Small-inducible (None found) 4.13 cytokine A19 P53582 Methionine Nitroxoline 4.19 aminopeptidase 1 P09237 Matrilysin Marimastat 5.23 P01833 Polymeric (None found) 6.23 immunoglobulin receptor Q9H773 XTP3- (None found) 8.25 transactivated gene A protein P35442 Thrombospondin- (None found) 9.83 2 O43927 Small-inducible (None found) 26.02 cytokine B13

In summary, the general approach described above may be applied to anyone of the protein-drug combinations described in Table 8 to develop a drug treatment plan or to administer the drug or drugs to the individual based on their proteomic profile (differential protein expression levels—“up” or “down” and the fold-level of that difference). Further, the approach may be used to identify proteins that may be drug targets for the treatment of individuals or groups of individuals that may share the same protein differential expression profile or profile range (i.e., have at least about a 4-fold, 5-fold, 6-fold, 7-fold, 8-fold and up to 100-fold or more in expression difference of the same protein as between tumor tissue and healthy/normal tissue).

Table 9 shows a protein expression profile generated using compositions and methods of the invention from a single patient (Subject D) with lung cancer (squamous carcinoma). By way of example, the protein Mitogen-activated protein kinase 13 (UniProt O15264) was found to be up-regulated in tumor tissue about 4-fold (or 4.03-fold) relative to the same protein in normal or healthy tissue from the same individual. While at this time, this protein does not have a known drug, the Mitogen-activated protein kinase 13 protein may be selected for drug development based on the differential expression levels between tumor tissue and healthy tissue.

By way of example, the protein Heparin-binding growth factor 2 (UniProt P09038 was found to be down-regulated in tumor tissue about 4-fold (as expressed in the table as 0.24) relative to the same protein in normal or healthy tissue from the same individual. The Heparin-binding growth factor 2 has known drugs that target this protein (e.g., Pentosan Polysulfate, Sucralfate and Sirolimus). Consequently, this individual may be responsive to a drug treatment plan that may include Pentosan Polysulfate, Sucralfate and/or Sirolimus. Thus, by way of example, a drug treatment plan for this individual may be developed by selecting one or more protein(s) that have differential expression between tumor tissue and healthy tissue of at least 4-fold (or at least 0.24 difference), and providing a drug treatment plan based on the drugs that target this particular protein.

By way of another example, the protein Plasminogen activator inhibitor 1 (UniProt P05121) was found to be up-regulated in tumor tissues relative to normal or healthy tissue by about 182-fold (or 181.88 fold). The Plasminogen activator inhibitor 1 has known drugs that target this protein (e.g., Anistreplase, Urokinase, Reteplase, Alteplase, Tenecteplase and Drotrecogin alfa). Consequently, this individual may be responsive to a drug treatment plan that may include Anistreplase, Urokinase, Reteplase, Alteplase, Tenecteplase and/or Drotrecogin alfa. Thus, by way of example, a drug treatment plan for this individual may be developed by selecting one or more protein(s) that have differential expression between tumor tissue and healthy tissue of at least about 182-fold and providing a drug treatment plan based on the drugs that target this particular protein.

TABLE 9 Proteomic profile for a single individual (Subject D) based on proteins having at least a 4-fold difference in expression between tumor tissue and normal tissue. Based on this threshold cut-off, this individual had 95 proteins with at least a 4-fold (either up or down) difference in tumor to healthy tissue protein expression levels. Protein Expression Uniprot Protein Name: Drug List: (Tumor/Normal) Q15109 Advanced (None found) 0.02 glycosylation end product-specific receptor P20231 Tryptase beta-2 (None found) 0.03 #N/A Complement C1q (None found) 0.04 subcomponent subunits A, B, and C P01833 Polymeric (None found) 0.04 immunoglobulin receptor #N/A Creatine kinase B- (None found) 0.05 type, Creatine kinase M-type P07451 Carbonic anhydrase 3 Zonisamide, Acetazolamide 0.06 P06732 Creatine kinase Creatine 0.09 M-type P21810 Biglycan (None found) 0.10 P12259 Coagulation Factor V ART-123, Drotrecogin alfa 0.11 #N/A Complement C4-A (None found) 0.11 and Complement C4-B #N/A Complement C5b, (None found) 0.12 and Complement component C6 P01037 Cystatin-SN (None found) 0.12 P00742 Coagulation factor X Fondaparinux sodium, Menadione, Enoxaparin, 0.14 (activated form) Coagulation factor VIIa, Antihemophilic Factor, Rivaroxaban, Apixaban, Coagulation Factor IX, Heparin P02679 Fibrinogen g-chain Sucralfate 0.14 dimer P00742 Coagulation Factor X Fondaparinux sodium, Menadione, Enoxaparin, 0.15 Coagulation factor VIIa, Antihemophilic Factor, Rivaroxaban, Apixaban, Coagulation Factor IX, Heparin Q9HCB6 Spondin-1 (None found) 0.16 P00736 Complement C1r Alemtuzumab, Daclizumab, Ibritumomab, 0.16 subcomponent Trastuzumab, Bevacizumab, Efalizumab, Muromonab, Adalimumab, Palivizumab, Abciximab, Natalizumab, Basiliximab, Cetuximab, Rituximab, Gemtuzumab ozogamicin, Etanercept, Tositumomab, Alefacept P07585 Decorin (None found) 0.16 P04275 von Willebrand Antihemophilic Factor 0.16 factor P78423 Fractalkine (None found) 0.16 #N/A Immunoglobulin G (None found) 0.16 P00740 Coagulation factor IX Menadione, Antihemophilic Factor 0.16 (activated form) P35625 Metalloproteinase (None found) 0.16 inhibitor 3 O75914 Serine/threonine- (None found) 0.17 protein kinase PAK 3 P00740 Coagulation factor IX Menadione, Antihemophilic Factor 0.17 P02735 Serum amyloid A (None found) 0.18 protein P01031 Complement C5 Eculizumab, Intravenous Immunoglobulin 0.18 P00746 Complement factor D (None found) 0.18 Family None (None found) 0.18 P07483 Fatty acid-binding (None found) 0.18 protein, heart RAT Q9UMF0 Intercellular adhesion (None found) 0.19 molecule 5 P24158 Myeloblastin (None found) 0.19 O43866 CD5 antigen-like (None found) 0.19 #N/A D-dimer (None found) 0.19 P16671 Platelet (None found) 0.19 glycoprotein 4 P13686 Tartrate-resistant acid (None found) 0.19 phosphatase type 5 P03952 Plasma kallikrein (None found) 0.19 (precursor) P02775 Neutrophil-activating (None found) 0.19 peptide 2 Q8NAC3 Interleukin-17 (None found) 0.20 receptor C #N/A Fibrinogen alpha, (None found) 0.20 beta, and gamma chains P08246 Leukocyte elastase Pegfilgrastim, Filgrastim, Alpha-1- 0.20 proteinase inhibitor Q07507 Dermatopontin (None found) 0.21 P13671 Complement (None found) 0.21 component C6 P00751 Complement factor B (None found) 0.21 Q9BU40 Chordin-like (None found) 0.21 protein 1 Q14515 SPARC-like (None found) 0.22 protein 1 P07225 Vitamin K-dependent Menadione, Sodium Tetradecyl 0.23 protein S Sulfate, Drotrecogin alfa P23280 Carbonic anhydrase 6 Zonisamide 0.23 P07339 Cathepsin D Insulin, Insulin Regular 0.23 P02748 Complement (None found) 0.23 component C9 Q12860 contactin-1 (None found) 0.24 P09038 Heparin-binding Pentosan Polysulfate, Sucralfate, Sirolimus 0.24 growth factor 2 Q96IY4 Carboxypeptidase B2 (None found) 0.25 O15264 Mitogen-activated (None found) 4.03 protein kinase 13 P24593 Insulin-like growth (None found) 4.13 factor-binding protein 5 O14929 Histone (None found) 4.19 acetyltransferase type B catalytic subunit P05164 Myeloperoxidase Mesalazine, Melatonin, L-Carnitine, 4.26 Cefdinir P04818 TS Pemetrexed, Trimethoprim, Fluorouracil, 4.28 Leucovorin, Gemcitabine, Pralatrexate, Capecitabine, Raltitrexed, Trifluridine, Floxuridine P52292 Importin subunit (None found) 4.32 alpha-2 O43291 Kunitz-type protease (None found) 4.39 inhibitor 2 P17936 Insulin-like growth Mecasermin 4.54 factor-binding protein 3 P02768 Serum albumin (None found) 4.55 Q76M96 Coiled-coil domain- (None found) 4.88 containing protein 80 O75509 Death receptor 6 (None found) 4.99 P00533 Epidermal growth Trastuzumab, Lidocaine, Lapatinib, Afatinib, 5.10 factor receptor Panitumumab, Gefitinib, Cetuximab, Erlotinib, Vandetanib O60911 Cathepsin L2 (None found) 5.20 P01033 Metalloproteinase (None found) 5.59 inhibitor 1 Q03154 Aminoacylase-1 L-Aspartic Acid 5.63 Q9NQU5 Serine/threonine- (None found) 5.72 protein kinase PAK 6 P10619 Lysosomal protective (None found) 5.79 protein P32004 Neural cell adhesion (None found) 6.10 molecule L1 P05067 Amyloid beta A4 (None found) 6.16 protein P31947 14-3-3 protein sigma (None found) 6.32 P25787 Proteasome subunit (None found) 6.35 alpha type 2 P18669 Phosphoglycerate (None found) 6.65 mutase 1 P02778 Small-inducible (None found) 8.01 cytokine B10 P08174 Complement decay- Chloramphenicol 8.11 accelerating factor P19957 Elafin (None found) 8.98 P05231 Interleukin-6 Ginseng 9.18 P02751 Fibronectin Ocriplasmin 9.54 #N/A Cell division control (None found) 9.71 protein 2 homolog, G2/mitotic-specific cyclin-B1 Complex P35442 Thrombospondin-2 (None found) 10.23 Q29980 MHC class I (None found) 13.84 polypeptide-related sequence B O95633 Follistatin-related (None found) 14.08 protein 3 P12830 Epithelial cadherin (None found) 14.21 P02751 Fibronectin-1 Ocriplasmin 14.37 Fragment 3 Q9H773 XTP3-transactivated (None found) 14.43 gene A protein P02751 Fibronectin-1 Ocriplasmin 15.27 Fragment 4 Q03167 TGF-beta receptor (None found) 15.89 type III P99999 Cytochrome c Minocycline 16.91 P78380 Oxidized low-density (None found) 19.32 lipoprotein receptor 1 P52823 Stanniocalcin-1 (None found) 34.39 Q9GZN4 Brain-specific serine (None found) 36.50 protease 4 P39900 Macrophage Acetohydroxamic Acid, Marimastat 37.71 metalloelastase P05121 Plasminogen Anistreplase, Urokinase, Reteplase, Alteplase, 181.88 activator inhibitor 1 Tenecteplase, Drotrecogin alfa

In summary, the general approach described above may be applied to anyone of the protein-drug combinations described in Table 9 to develop a drug treatment plan or to administer the drug or drugs to the individual based on their proteomic profile (differential protein expression levels—“up” or “down” and the fold-level of that difference). Further, the approach may be used to identify proteins that may be drug targets for the treatment of individuals or groups of individuals that may share the same protein differential expression profile or profile range (i.e., have at least about a 4-fold, 5-fold, 6-fold, 7-fold, 8-fold and up to 100-fold or more in expression difference of the same protein as between tumor tissue and healthy/normal tissue).

Table 10 shows a protein expression profile generated using compositions and methods of the invention from a single patient (Subject E) with lung cancer (squamous carcinoma). By way of example, the protein Thrombospondin-2 (UniProt P35442) was found to be up-regulated in tumor tissue about 21-fold (or 21.4-fold) relative to the same protein in normal or healthy tissue from the same individual. While at this time, this protein does not have a known drug, the Thrombospondin-2 protein may be selected for drug development based on the differential expression levels between tumor tissue and healthy tissue.

By way of example, the protein Plasminogen (UniProt P00747) was found to be down-regulated in tumor tissue about 50-fold (as expressed in the table as 0.02) relative to the same protein in normal or healthy tissue from the same individual. The Plasminogen protein has known drugs that target this protein (e.g., Streptokinase, Anistreplase, Aminocaproic Acid, Urokinase, Reteplase, Alteplase, Aprotinin, Tranexamic Acid and Tenecteplase). Consequently, this individual may be responsive to a drug treatment plan that may include Streptokinase, Anistreplase, Aminocaproic Acid, Urokinase, Reteplase, Alteplase, Aprotinin, Tranexamic Acid and/or Tenecteplase. Thus, by way of example, a drug treatment plan for this individual may be developed by selecting one or more protein(s) that have differential expression between tumor tissue and healthy tissue of at least 50-fold (or at least 0.02 difference), and providing a drug treatment plan based on the drugs that target this particular protein.

By way of another example, the protein MMP-1 (UniProt P03956) was found to be up-regulated in tumor tissues relative to normal or healthy tissue by about 25-fold (or 25.28 fold). The MMP-1 protein has a known drug that targets this protein (e.g., Marimastat). Consequently, this individual may be responsive to a drug treatment plan that may include Marimastat. Thus, by way of example, a drug treatment plan for this individual may be developed by selecting one or more protein(s) that have differential expression between tumor tissue and healthy tissue of at least about 25-fold and providing a drug treatment plan based on the drugs that target this particular protein.

TABLE 10 Proteomic profile for a single individual (Subject E) based on proteins having at least a 4-fold difference in expression between tumor tissue and normal tissue. Based on this threshold cut-off, this individual had 128 proteins with at least a 4-fold (either up or down) difference in tumor to healthy tissue protein expression levels. Protein Expression Uniprot Protein Name: Drug List: (Tumor/Normal) Q15109 Advanced (None found) 0.00 glycosylation end product-specific receptor P00747 Plasminogen Streptokinase, Anistreplase, Aminocaproic Acid, 0.02 Urokinase, Reteplase, Alteplase, Aprotinin, Tranexamic Acid, Tenecteplase P07451 Carbonic Zonisamide, Acetazolamide 0.03 anhydrase 3 P07483 Fatty acid-binding (None found) 0.03 protein, heart RAT P04040 Catalase Fomepizole 0.04 P43652 Afamin (None found) 0.04 P03952 Plasma kallikrein (None found) 0.05 (precursor) 0.05 P01042 Kininogen-1, (None found) HMW P00915 Carbonic Hydrochlorothiazide, Quinethazone, Benzthiazide, Diazoxide, 0.05 anhydrase I Trichlormethiazide, Methocarbamol, Amlodipine, Bendroflumethiazide, Brinzolamide, Dichlorphenamide, Methazolamide, Ethinamate, Hydroflumethiazide, Acetazolamide, Cyclothiazide, Zonisamide, Ethoxzolamide, Chlorothiazide, Methyclothiazide, Dorzolamide P00742 Coagulation factor Fondaparinux sodium, Menadione, Enoxaparin, Coagulation 0.05 X (activated form) factor VIIa, Antihemophilic Factor, Rivaroxaban, Apixaban, Coagulation Factor IX, Heparin P00747 Angiostatin Streptokinase, Anistreplase, Aminocaproic Acid, 0.06 Urokinase, Reteplase, Alteplase, Aprotinin, Tranexamic Acid, Tenecteplase P01024 C3a anaphylatoxin Intravenous Immunoglobulin 0.06 des Arginine P01019 Angiotensinogen (None found) 0.06 P29622 Kallistatin (None found) 0.06 P00742 Coagulation Fondaparinux sodium, Menadione, Enoxaparin, Coagulation 0.06 Factor X factor VIIa, Antihemophilic Factor, Rivaroxaban, Apixaban, Coagulation Factor IX, Heparin P01833 Polymeric (None found) 0.06 immunoglobulin receptor P55774 C-C motif (None found) 0.07 chemokine 18 P21810 Biglycan (None found) 0.07 P05543 Thyroxine-binding (None found) 0.07 globulin P05546 Heparin cofactor 2 Ardeparin, Sulodexide 0.07 Q14624 Inter-alpha-trypsin (None found) 0.07 inhibitor heavy chain H4 P01008 Antithrombin-III Tinzaparin, Dalteparin, Nadroparin, Fondaparinux 0.07 sodium, Sulodexide, Ardeparin, Enoxaparin, Heparin P02743 Serum amyloid P- (None found) 0.08 component P02775 Neutrophil- (None found) 0.08 activating peptide 2 P13686 Tartrate-resistant (None found) 0.08 acid phosphatase type 5 P02647 Apolipoprotein A-I (None found) 0.08 Q04756 Hepatocyte growth (None found) 0.09 factor activator P01042 Kininogen-1, (None found) 0.09 HMW P01031 Complement C5 Eculizumab, Intravenous Immunoglobulin 0.09 Q96IY4 Carboxypeptidase (None found) 0.09 B2 P02775 Connective-tissue (None found) 0.09 activating peptide III Q8NAC3 Interleukin-17 (None found) 0.09 receptor C Q9UGM5 Fetuin-B (None found) 0.10 P08603 Complement factor (None found) 0.10 H P02776 Platelet factor 4 Drotrecogin alfa 0.10 P02787 Serotransferrin Aluminium 0.10 #N/A Complement C4-A (None found) 0.10 and Complement C4-B P00568 Myokinase, human (None found) 0.11 P48061 Stromal cell- Tinzaparin 0.11 derived factor 1 P05154 Plasma serine Urokinase, Drotrecogin alfa 0.11 protease inhibitor O15467 Small-inducible (None found) 0.11 cytokine A16 P02790 Hemopexin (None found) 0.11 P00751 Complement factor (None found) 0.11 B P12259 Coagulation Factor ART-123, Drotrecogin alfa 0.11 V P05156 Complement factor (None found) 0.11 I P01024 C3a anaphylatoxin Intravenous Immunoglobulin 0.12 #N/A Ferritin heavy and (None found) 0.12 light chains P13671 Complement (None found) 0.13 component C6 #N/A Fibrinogen alpha, (None found) 0.13 beta, and gamma chains P07225 Vitamin K- Menadione, Sodium Tetradecyl Sulfate, 0.13 dependent Drotrecogin alfa protein S P01011 Alpha-1- (None found) 0.13 antichymotrypsin P02751 Fibronectin Ocriplasmin 0.13 P00740 Coagulation factor Menadione, Antihemophilic Factor 0.13 IX P01024 Complement C3b, Intravenous Immunoglobulin 0.13 incactivated P02748 Complement (None found) 0.14 component C9 O00585 Small-inducible (None found) 0.14 cytokine A21 P35247 Pulmonary (None found) 0.15 surfactant- associated protein D P01024 Complement C3 Intravenous Immunoglobulin 0.15 #N/A C4b-A (None found) 0.15 P00734 Prothrombin Ximelagatran, Menadione, Coagulation Factor 0.15 IX, Proflavine, Lepirudin, ART-123, Suramin, Bivalirudin, Argatroban, Dabigatran etexilate, Drotrecogin alfa P08697 Alpha-2- Ocriplasmin 0.15 antiplasmin #N/A Hemoglobin (None found) 0.16 P20231 Tryptase beta-2 (None found) 0.16 Q92563 Testican-2 (None found) 0.16 P04196 Histidine-rich (None found) 0.16 glycoprotein P22626 Heterogeneous (None found) 0.16 nuclear ribonucleoproteins A2/B1 P02748 Complement (None found) 0.16 component C9 P21246 Pleiotrophin (None found) 0.16 Q6UX06 Olfactomedin-4 (None found) 0.16 P62979 Ubiquitin (None found) 0.16 P62937 Peptidyl-prolyl cis- Cyclosporine, L-Proline 0.17 trans isomerase A Q12860 contactin-1 (None found) 0.17 P00740 Coagulation factor Menadione, Antihemophilic Factor 0.17 IX (activated form) P06681 Complement C2 (None found) 0.17 #N/A Complement C5b, (None found) 0.17 and Complement component C6 P30041 Peroxiredoxin-6 (None found) 0.18 P04406 Glyceraldehyde-3- (None found) 0.18 phosphate dehydrogenase P02775 Neutrophil- (None found) 0.18 activating peptide 2 P03951 Coagulation factor Coagulation Factor IX 0.18 XI P29401 Transketolase (None found) 0.18 P05186 Alkaline (None found) 0.18 phosphatase, tissue-nonspecific isozyme P04278 Sex hormone- (None found) 0.18 binding globulin Q13740 Activated (None found) 0.19 leukocyte cell adhesion molecule Q13219 Pappalysin-1 (None found) 0.19 P07585 Decorin (None found) 0.20 P02788 Lactotransferrin (None found) 0.20 Q9Y5Y7 Lymphatic vessel (None found) 0.20 endothelial hyaluronic acid receptor 1 P02751 Fibronectin-1 Ocriplasmin 0.20 Fragment 3 P16671 Platelet (None found) 0.21 glycoprotein 4 P10909 Clusterin (None found) 0.21 #N/A Immunoglobulin G (None found) 0.21 P30086 prostatic binding (None found) 0.22 protein P27918 Properdin (None found) 0.22 P02649 Apolipoprotein E Serum albumin iodonated, Human Serum Albumin 0.22 (isoform E3) P09769 Proto-oncogene (None found) 0.22 tyrosine-protein kinase FGR P07195 L-lactate (None found) 0.23 dehydrogenase B chain P09038 Heparin-binding Pentosan Polysulfate, Sucralfate, Sirolimus 0.23 growth factor 2 P16109 P-selectin Dalteparin, Nadroparin, Heparin 0.24 P03950 Angiogenin (None found) 0.24 #N/A Immunoglobulin M (None found) 0.24 P02649 Apolipoprotein E Serum albumin iodonated, Human Serum Albumin 0.24 (isoform E2) P10643 Complement (None found) 0.25 component C7 P42684 Tyrosine-protein Dasatinib, Adenosine triphosphate 4.02 kinase ABL2 #N/A #N/A (None found) 4.03 P09238 Stromelysin-2 Marimastat 4.05 O00541 Pescadillo homolog (None found) 4.10 1 Q6UXX9 R-spondin-2 (None found) 4.13 P04818 TS Pemetrexed, Trimethoprim, Fluorouracil, Leucovorin, 4.60 Gemcitabine, Pralatrexate, Capecitabine, Raltitrexed, Trifluridine, Floxuridine P51671 Eotaxin (None found) 4.85 P41743 Protein kinase C (None found) 4.86 iota type O00339 Matrilin-2 (None found) 5.08 Q9H773 XTP3- (None found) 5.46 transactivated gene A protein O43291 Kunitz-type (None found) 5.47 protease inhibitor 2 #N/A Cell division (None found) 5.68 control protein 2 homolog, G2/mitotic-specific cyclin-B1 Complex Q99706 Killer cell (None found) 5.79 immunoglobulin- like receptor 2DL4 P10145 Interleukin-8 (None found) 5.85 P02735 Serum amyloid A (None found) 6.01 protein O43278 Kunitz-type (None found) 6.23 protease inhibitor 1 O60911 Cathepsin L2 (None found) 6.44 Q7LFX5 N- (None found) 6.81 acetylgalactosamine 4-sulfate 6-O- sulfotransferase P52823 Stanniocalcin-1 (None found) 7.26 P21741 Midkine (None found) 10.06 P00749 Urokinase-type Urokinase, Amiloride 10.55 plasminogen activator P19957 Elafin (None found) 13.61 P18669 Phosphoglycerate (None found) 17.51 mutase 1 P35442 Thrombospondin-2 (None found) 21.40 P03956 MMP-1 Marimastat 25.28 P39900 Macrophage Acetohydroxamic Acid, Marimastat 30.88 metalloelastase

In summary, the general approach described above may be applied to anyone of the protein-drug combinations described in Table 10 to develop a drug treatment plan or to administer the drug or drugs to the individual based on their proteomic profile (differential protein expression levels—“up” or “down” and the fold-level of that difference). Further, the approach may be used to identify proteins that may be drug targets for the treatment of individuals or groups of individuals that may share the same protein differential expression profile or profile range (i.e., have at least about a 4-fold, 5-fold, 6-fold, 7-fold, 8-fold and up to 100-fold or more in expression difference of the same protein as between tumor tissue and healthy/normal tissue).

Table 11 shows exemplary protein and drugs that target the listed proteins.

TABLE 11 UniProt Protein Name Known Drugs P01023 α2-Macroglobulin Ocriplasmin, Bacitracin, Becaplermin P00519 c-abl oncogene 1, non-receptor Dasatinib, Bosutinib, Adenosine triphosphate, tyrosine kinase Nilotinib, Ponatinib, Imatinib, Regorafenib P42684 v-abl Abelson murine leukemia viral Dasatinib, Adenosine triphosphate oncogene homolog 2 P42684 v-abl Abelson murine leukemia viral Dasatinib, Adenosine triphosphate oncogene homolog 2 P16112 Aggrecan core protein (None found) Q9BYF1 Angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 Moexipril, Lisinopril P24666 Acid phosphatase 1, soluble Adenine P13686 Tartrate-resistant acid phosphatase type 5 P36896 Activin Serine-threonine-protein Adenosine triphosphate kinase receptor type-1B P37023 Activin receptor-like kinase 1 Adenosine triphosphate Q03154 Aminoacylase-1 L-Aspartic Acid O43184 ADAM metallopeptidase domain 12 Q13443 ADAM metallopeptidase domain 9 Q9UHI8 ADAM metalloproteinase with thrombospondin motifs 1 Q76LX8 ADAM metallopeptidase with thrombospondin motifs 13 Q8TE58 ADAM metallopeptidase with thrombospondin motifs 15 O75173 ADAM metallopeptidase with thrombospondin motifs 4/Aggrecanase 1 Q9UNA0 ADAM metallopeptidase with thrombospondin motifs 5/Aggrecanase 2 P18509 Pituitary adenylate cyclase- activating polypeptide 27 P18509 Pituitary adenylate cyclase- activating polypeptide 38 Q15848 Adiponectin P25098 β-adrenergic receptor kinase 1 Adenosine triphosphate P30566 PUR8/Adenylosuccinate lyase P43652 Afamin Q15109 RAGE, soluble/Advanced glycosylation end product-specific receptor O95994 Anterior gradient protein 2 homolog O00253 Agouti-related protein P01019 Angiotensinogen P02765 α2-HS-Glycoprotein P55008 Allograft inflammatory factor 1 Q12904 Endothelial-Monocyte Activating Polypeptide 2 O00170 AH receptor-interacting protein P00568 Adenylate Kinase 1 P14550 Alcohol dehydrogenase (NADP+)/Ado- keto reductase family 1 member A1 O43488 Aflatoxin B1 aldehyde reductase P02768 Albumin Q13740 Activated leukocyte cell adhesion molecule P05186 Alkaline phosphatase, tissue- nonspecific isozyme P03971 Muellerian-inhibiting factor Q16671 Anti-Mullerian hormone receptor, Adenosine triphosphate type II Q86YT9 Junctional adhesion molecule-like Q9BXJ7 Amnionless Hydroxocobalamin P03950 Angiogenin Q15389 Angiopoietin-1 O15123 Angiopoietin-2 Q9Y264 Angiopoietin-4 Q9Y5C1 Angiopoietin-related 3 Q9BY76 Angiopoietin-related 4 Q92688 Acidic leucine-rich nuclear phosphoprotein 32 family member B P04083 Annexin A1 Hydrocortisone, Dexamethasone, Amcinonide P07355 Annexin A2 Tenecteplase P08133 Annexin A6 P02743 Serum amyloid P P02647 Apolipoprotein A-I P04114 Apolipoprotein B P05090 Apolipoprotein D P02649 Apolipoprotein E Serum albumin iodonated, Human Serum Albumin P02649 Apolipoprotein E3 Serum albumin iodonated, Human Serum Albumin P02649 Apolipoprotein E4 Serum albumin iodonated, Human Serum Albumin P02649 Apolipoprotein E (isoform E2) Serum albumin iodonated, Human Serum Albumin P05067 Amyloid β A4 protein P15514 Amphiregulin P05089 Arginase-1 L-Ornithine Q99856 ARID domain-containing protein 3A P56211 cAMP-regulated phosphoprotein 19 P15289 Arylsulfatase A P15848 Arylsulfatase B Q5T4W7 Artemin Q9NR71 Neutral ceramidase P07306 Asialoglycoprotein receptor 1 P06576 ATP synthase β-subunit, mitochondrial O14965 Aurora kinase A Q96GD4 Aurora-related kinase 2 P20160 Azurocidin P61769 β2-Microglobulin P50895 Basal Cell Adhesion Molecule Q96GW7 Brevican O75815 BCAR3 breast cancer anti-estrogen resistance 3 P10415 Apoptosis regulator Bcl-2 Rasagiline, Paclitaxel, Ibuprofen, Docetaxel Q16548 Bcl-2-related protein A1 Q07817 Apoptosis regulator Bcl-X P23560 Brain-derived neurotrophic factor P21810 Biglycan Q13489 Apoptosis inhibitor 2/C-IAP2 O15392 Survivin Q96CA5 Livin/baculoviral IAP repeat containing 7 P13497 Bone morphogenetic protein-1 O95393 Bone morphogenetic protein-10 P22004 Bone morphogenetic protein-6 P18075 Bone morphogenetic protein-7 Q8N8U9 Bone morphogenetic protein-binding endothelial regulator protein P36894 Bone morphogenetic protein receptor type IA Q13873 Bone morphogenetic protein type II receptor P51813 Tyrosine kinase Etk Q9BWV1 Shh receptor Boc P17213 Bactericidal permeability-increasing protein Q92994 BRF1 P35613 Extracellular matrix metalloproteinase inducer Q10588 Bone marrow stromal cell antigen/CD157 Q06187 Tyrosine kinase Bruton P02745 Complement C1q P02746 P02747 Q07021 Complement C1q subcomponent- binding protein, mitochondrial P00736 Complement C1r Alemtuzumab, Daclizumab, Ibritumomab, Trastuzumab, Bevacizumab, Efalizumab, Muromonab, Adalimumab, Palivizumab, Abciximab, Natalizumab, Basiliximab, Cetuximab, Rituximab, Gemtuzumab ozogamicin, Etanercept, Tositumomab, Alefacept P09871 Complement C1s Adalimumab, Abciximab, Basiliximab, Cetuximab, Ibritumomab, Rituximab, Gemtuzumab ozogamicin, Etanercept, Trastuzumab, Muromonab P06681 Complement C2 P01024 Complement C3b, inactivated Intravenous Immunoglobulin P01024 Complement C3 Intravenous Immunoglobulin P01024 Complement C3a anaphylatoxin Intravenous Immunoglobulin des Arginine P01024 Complement C3b Intravenous Immunoglobulin P01024 Complement C3d Intravenous Immunoglobulin P01024 Complement C3a anaphylatoxin Intravenous Immunoglobulin P0C0L4 Complement C4b P0C0L5 P0C0L4, Complement C4 P0C0L5 P01031 Complement C5 Eculizumab, Intravenous Immunoglobulin P01031 Complement C5a Eculizumab, Intravenous Immunoglobulin P01031, Complement C5b, 6 Complex P13671 P13671 Complement C6 P10643 Complement C7 P07357, Complement C8 P07358, P07360 P02748 Complement C9 P02748 Complement C9 P00915 Carbonic anhydrase I Hydrochlorothiazide, Quinethazone, Benzthiazide, Diazoxide, Trichlormethiazide, Methocarbamol, Amlodipine, Bendroflumethiazide, Brinzolamide, Dichlorphenamide, Methazolamide, Ethinamate, Hydroflumethiazide, Acetazolamide, Cyclothiazide, Zonisamide, Ethoxzolamide, Chlorothiazide, Methyclothiazide, Dorzolamide Q9NS85 Carbonic anhydrase- Zonisamide related protein X Q8N1Q1 Carbonic anhydrase XIII Zonisamide P00918 Carbonic anhydrase II Hydrochlorothiazide, Benzthiazide, Bendroflumethiazide, Zonisamide, Topiramate, Methyclothiazide, Quinethazone, Furosemide, Acetazolamide, Ethoxzolamide, Diazoxide, Dichlorphenamide, Ethinamate, Cyclothiazide, Dorzolamide, Trichlormethiazide, Brinzolamide, Methazolamide, Hydroflumethiazide, Chlorothiazide P07451 Carbonic anhydrase III Zonisamide, Acetazolamide P22748 Carbonic anhydrase IV Hydrochlorothiazide, Benzthiazide, Trichlormethiazide, Bendroflumethiazide, Brinzolamide, Dichlorphenamide, Methazolamide, Hydroflumethiazide, Acetazolamide, Cyclothiazide, Zonisamide, Ethoxzolamide, Chlorothiazide, Topiramate, Methyclothiazide, Dorzolamide P23280 Carbonic anhydrase VI Zonisamide P43166 Carbonic anhydrase VII Dichlorphenamide, Zonisamide, Methazolamide, Acetazolamide, Ethoxzolamide Q16790 Carbonic anhydrase IX Zonisamide, Hydrochlorothiazide, Hydroflumethiazide, Benzthiazide Q9BY67 Nectin-like protein 2 Q8N126 Nectin-like protein 1 P27797 Calreticulin Melatonin, Antihemophilic Factor, Tenecteplase Q14012 Calcium-calmodulin-dependent protein kinase I Q8IU85 Calcium-calmodulin-dependent protein kinase ID Q9UQM7 Calcium-calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II α Q13554 Calcium-calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II β Q13557 Calcium-calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II δ Q8N5S9 Calcium-calmodulin-dependent protein kinase kinase 1, α P40121 Macrophage-capping protein P07384 Calpain 1 P04632 Q92851 Caspase 10, apoptosis-related cysteine peptidase P42575 Caspase-2 P42574 Caspase-3 Minocycline P20810 Calpastatin P04040 Catalase Fomepizole P45973 Chromobox protein homolog 5 Q76M96 Coiled-coil domain-containing protein 80 P22362 CC chemokine I-309/CCL1 P51671 Eotaxin/CCL11 Q99616 Monocyte chemoattractant protein 4 Q16627 Hemofiltrate CC Chemokine 1/CCL14 Q16663 Macrophage inflammatory protein 5/CCL15 O15467 Liver-expressed chemokine/CCL16 Q92583 Thymus and activation-regulated chemokine/CCL17 P55774 Macrophage inflammatory protein 4/Pulmonary and activation-regulated chemokine/CCL18 Q99731 Macrophage inflammatory protein 3 β/CCL19 P13500 Monocyte chemoattractant protein 1 Mimosine, Danazol P78556 Macrophage inflammatory protein 3 α/CCL20 O00585 6Ckine/CCL21 O00626 Macrophage-derived chemokine P55773 Myeloid progenitor inhibitory factor 1/CCL23 P55773 Ck-β-8-1/Macrophage inflammatory protein 3 splice variant (aa 46-137) O00175 Eotaxin-2 O15444 Thymus expressed chemokine/CCL25 Q9Y4X3 Cutaneous T-cell-attracting chemokine/CCL27 Q9NRJ3 CCL28 P10147 Macrophage inflammatory protein 1- α/CCL3 P16619 LD78-β/CCL3L1 Q8NHW4 Lymphocyte Activation Gene-1/CCL4L1 P13501 RANTES/CCL5 P80098 Monocyte chemoattractant protein 3 P80075 Monocyte chemoattractant protein 2 P14635 Cyclin B1 Q6YHK3 CD109 Q86VB7 Scavenger receptor cysteine-rich type 1 WF10 protein M130 chain/Soluble CD163 P41217 CD200/OX-2 membrane glycoprotein Q8TD46 CD200 receptor 1 Q9UJ71 Langerin Q9NNX6 Dendritic cell-specific ICAM-3-grabbing nonintegrin 1/CD209 P20273 CD22 Q15762 DNAX accessory molecule 1/CD226 P26842 CD27/TNFRSF7 Q9NZQ7 B7 homolog 1/CD274 Q08708 CMRF35-like molecule 6/CD300c P20138 Siglec-3 Gemtuzumab ozogamicin P16671 CD36 ANTIGEN P01730 T-cell surface glycoprotein CD4 Antithymocyte globulin P29965 CD40 ligand P09326 CD48 P08174 CD55/Complement decay-accelerating Chloramphenicol factor/DAF O43866 CD5 antigen-like P32970 CD70 P33681 T-lymphocyte activation antigen CD80 Belatacept, Abatacept Q9UIB8 Signaling lymphocytic activation molecule 5 P42081 B7-2/CD86 Belatacept, Abatacept, Antithymocyte globulin P48960 CD97 P06493 Cyclin-dependent kinase 1: cyclin B P14635 complex Q16543 Hsp90 co-chaperone Cdc37 Q9Y5S2 Myotonic dystrophy protein kinase-like β P12830 Cadherin-1 P55289 Cadherin-12 P55291 Cadherin 15, type 1, M-cadherin (myotubule) P19022 Cadherin 2, type 1, N-cadherin (neuronal) P22223 Cadherin-3 P33151 Cadherin-5 Lenalidomide P55285 Cadherin-6 P24941 Cyclin-dependent kinase 2: cyclin A P20248 complex Q00535 Cyclin-dependent kinase 5: activator p35 Q15078 complex P49336 Cyclin-dependent kinase 8: cyclin C P24863 complex P46527 Cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor p27 Q49AH0 Conserved dopamine neurotrophic factor Q4KMG0 Cell adhesion molecule-related down- regulated by oncogenes P00751 Complement factor B P0CG37 Cryptic protein P00746 Complement factor D P08603 Complement factor H Q9BXR6 Complement factor H-related 5 P05156 Complement factor I P23528 Cofilin-1 P27918 Properdin P01215, Human Chorionic Gonadotropin P01233 P01215, Follicle stimulating hormone P01225 P01215, Luteinizing hormone P01229 P01215 Thyroid Stimulating Hormone P01222 O14757 Serine-threonine-protein kinase Chk1 O96017 Serine-threonine-protein kinase Chk2 Q13231 Chitotriosidase-1 O00533 Neural cell adhesion molecule L1-like protein Q9BU40 Chordin-Like 1 Q7LFX5 Carbohydrate sulfotransferase 15 Q9Y4C5 Carbohydrate sulfotransferase 2 Q9GZX3 Carbohydrate sulfotransferase 6 Q8WWK9 CKAP2/Cytoskeleton-associated protein 2 P12277 Creatine kinase-BB Creatine P12277 Creatine kinase-MB P06732 P06732 Creatine kinase-MM Creatine Q9Y240 Stem Cell Growth Factor Q9Y240 Stem Cell Growth Factor Q9P126 C-type lectin domain family 1 member B Q9H2X3 Dendritic cell-specific ICAM-3-grabbing nonintegrin 2/CD299 Q9BXN2 Dectin-1 O00299 Nuclear chloride ion channel 27 P10909 Clusterin P23946 Chymase P30085 UMP-CMP kinase Gemcitabine Q96KN2 Carnosine dipeptidase 1 Q96KP4 Glutamate carboxypeptidase P26441 Ciliary Neurotrophic Factor P26992 Ciliary neurotrophic factor receptor α Q12860 Contactin-1 Q02246 Contactin-2 Q8IWV2 Contactin-4 O94779 Contactin-5 P39060 Endostatin Q86Y22 Collagen α-1(XXIII) chain P27658 Collagen α-1(VIII) chain Q9BWP8 Collectin Kidney 1 Q5KU26 Collectin placenta 1 Q86VX2 COMM domain containing 7 Q14019 Coactosin-like protein 1 Q96IY4 Thrombin-Activatable Fibrinolysis Inhibitor P16870 Carboxypeptidase E Insulin, Insulin Regular Q99829 Copine-1 P54108 Cysteine-rich secretory protein 3 P46108 Adaptor protein Crk-I O75462 Cytokine receptor-like factor Q9UBD9 1: Cardiotrophin-like cytokine factor 1 Complex Q9HC73 Thymic stromal lymphopoietin protein receptor P02741 C-reactive protein inhaled insulin O95727 CRTAM/cytotoxic and regulatory T cell molecule P09603 Macrophage colony-stimulating factor 1 P07333 Macrophage colony-stimulating factor 1 Sunitinib, Imatinib receptor P04141 Granulocyte-macrophage colony- stimulating factor P09919 Granulocyte colony-stimulating factor Q99062 Granulocyte colony-stimulating factor Pegfilgrastim, Filgrastim receptor P41240 C-Src kinase P47710 α-S1-casein P68400 Casein kinase II subunit α P68400 Casein kinase II subunit α P68400 Casein kinase II α1: β heterodimer P67870 P19784 Casein kinase II α2: β heterodimer P67870 P01037 Cystatin SN P09228 Cystatin SA P01034 Cystatin C P01036 Cystatin S P28325 Cystatin D Q15828 Cystatin M O76096 Cystatin F Q16619 Cardiotrophin-1 P29279 Connective tissue growth factor P16410 Cytotoxic T-lymphocyte-4 Ipilimumab P10619 Cathepsin A P07858 Cathepsin B P53634 Cathepsin C P07339 Cathepsin D Insulin, Insulin Regular P14091 Cathepsin E P08311 Cathepsin G P09668 Cathepsin H O60911 Cathepsin V P25774 Cathepsin S Q9UBR2 Cathepsin Z P78423 Fractalkine/CX3CL-1 P09341 Gro-α P02778 Interferon-γ induced protein O14625 Interferon-γ-inducible protein-9 P48061 Stromal cell-derived factor 1 Tinzaparin P48061 Stromal cell-derived factor 1 Tinzaparin O43927 B lymphocyte chemoattractant/CXCL13 Q9H2A7 Scavenger receptor for phosphatidylserine and oxidized low density lipoprotein/CXCL16 P19876 Gro-γ/β P19875 P19876 Gro-γ/β P19875 P42830 Epithelial-derived neutrophil-activating protein 78/CXCL5 P80162 Granulocyte chemotactic protein 2/CXCL6 P99999 Cytochrome c Minocycline P08684 Cytochrome P450 3A4 Paliperidone Q9UIK4 Death-associated protein kinase 2 Q9UJU6 Drebrin-like HIP-55 P07585 Bone proteoglycan II Q13561 Dynactin subunit 2 Q9H773 dCTP pyrophosphatase 1 P20711 Dopa decarboxylase Carbidopa Q08345 Discoidin domain receptor 1 Imatinib Q16832 Discoidin domain receptor 2 Regorafenib Q9UMR2 DEAD box RNA helicase 19B O43323 Desert Hedgehog N-Terminus Q9NR28 Diablo, IAP-binding mitochondrial protein O94907 Dickkopf-related protein 1 Q9UBP4 Dickkopf-related protein 3 Q9UBT3 Dickkopf-related protein 4 Q9UK85 Soggy-1 O00548 Delta-like protein 1 (DLL1) Q9NR61 Drosophila Delta homolog 4 Q13316 Dentin matrix protein 1 P25685 Hsp40 Q96DA6 DnaJ homolog Q9UHL4 Dipeptidyl-peptidase II Q07507 Dermatopontin Q14574 Desmocollin-3 Q02413 Desmoglein-1 Q14126 Desmoglein-2 P51452 Vaccinia Virus VH1-related Phosphatase/Dual specificity protein phosphatase 3 P63167 Dynein light chain 1 Q9NP97 Dynein light chain roadblock-type 1 O43781 Dual-specificity protein kinase 3 P42892 Endothelin-converting enzyme 1 Q16610 Extracellular matrix protein-1 Q92838 Ectodysplasin-A, secreted form Q9HAV5 X-linked ectodysplasin-A2 receptor Q9UNE0 Ectodermal Dysplasia Receptor P24534 Elongation factor 1-β P52798 Ephrin-A4 P52803 Ephrin-A5 Q15768 Ephrin-B3 P00533 erbB1/HER1 Trastuzumab, Lidocaine, Lapatinib, Afatinib, Panitumumab, Gefitinib, Cetuximab, Erlotinib, Vandetanib Q96KQ7 Histone H3-K9 methyltransferase 3 P38919 Eukaryotic translation initiation factor 4A-III Q13542 Eukaryotic translation initiation factor 4E-binding protein 2 P78344 Eukaryotic translation initiation factor G2 P55010 Eukaryotic translation initiation factor 5 P63241 Eukaryotic translation initiation factor 5A P08246 Neutrophil elastase Pegfilgrastim, Filgrastim, Alpha-1-proteinase inhibitor Q9UHX3 EGF-like module-containing mucin-like receptor 2 P17813 Endoglin Q6UWV6 Alkaline Sphingomyelinase P49961 CD39 O75355 Ectonucleoside triphosphate diphosphohydrolase 3/CD39L3 O75356 Ectonucleoside triphosphate diphosphohydrolase 5/CD39L4 P11171 erythrocyte membrane protein 4.1 P21709 Ephrin type-A receptor 1 Q5JZY3 EPH receptor A10 P29317 Ephrin type-A receptor 2 Dasatinib, Regorafenib P29320 Ephrin type-A receptor 3 P54756 Ephrin type-A receptor 5 P29323 EPH receptor B2 P54760 Ephrin type-B receptor 4 O15197 EPH receptor B6 P01588 Erythropoietin P19235 Erythropoietin receptor Darbepoetin alfa, Epoetin alfa, Epoetin Zeta, Peginesatide Q9UBC2 Epidermal growth factor receptor substrate 15-like 1 Q9NZ08 Endoplasmic reticulum aminopeptidase 1 P04626 erbB2/HER2 Lapatinib, Afatinib, Trastuzumab, Pertuzumab, ado- trastuzumab emtansine P21860 erbB3/HER3 Q15303 erbB4/HER4 Afatinib O14944 Epiregulin P30040 Endoplasmic reticulum resident protein 29 Q96AP7 Endothelial cell-selective adhesion molecule P10768 Esterase D Glutathione Q9NQ30 Endocan P03372 Estrogen receptor Estriol, Allylestrenol, Norgestimate, Ethynodiol, Tamoxifen, Quinestrol, Levonorgestrel, Medroxyprogesterone Acetate, Chlorotrianisene, Diethylstilbestrol, Dienestrol, Progesterone, Toremifene, Ethinyl Estradiol, Desogestrel, Estradiol, Ospemifene, Melatonin, Clomifene, Fluoxymesterone, Danazol, Estrone, Naloxone, Raloxifene, Estramustine, Estropipate, Etonogestrel, Trilostane, Fulvestrant, Conjugated Estrogens, Mestranol O95571 Ethylmalonic encephalopathy 1 P00742 Coagulation Factor Xa Fondaparinux sodium, Menadione, Enoxaparin, Coagulation factor VIIa, Antihemophilic Factor, Rivaroxaban, Apixaban, Coagulation Factor IX, Heparin P00742 Coagulation Factor X Fondaparinux sodium, Menadione, Enoxaparin, Coagulation factor VIIa, Antihemophilic Factor, Rivaroxaban, Apixaban, Coagulation Factor IX, Heparin P03951 Coagulation Factor XI Coagulation Factor IX P00734 Thrombin Ximelagatran, Menadione, Coagulation Factor IX, Proflavine, Lepirudin, ART-123, Suramin, Bivalirudin, Argatroban, Dabigatran etexilate, Drotrecogin alfa P00734 Prothrombin Ximelagatran, Menadione, Coagulation Factor IX, Proflavine, Lepirudin, ART-123, Suramin, Bivalirudin, Argatroban, Dabigatran etexilate, Drotrecogin alfa P13726 Tissue Factor Coagulation factor VIIa P12259 Coagulation Factor V ART-123, Drotrecogin alfa P08709 Coagulation Factor VII Coagulation factor VIIa, Menadione, Coagulation Factor IX P00740 Coagulation factor IX Menadione, Antihemophilic Factor P00740 Coagulation Factor IXab Menadione, Antihemophilic Factor P05413 Fatty acid binding protein, heart-type P07483 0 Q01469 Fatty acid binding protein, epidermal- type O95990 Down-regulated in renal cell carcinoma 1 Q9H098 Protein FAM107B Q12884 Fibroblast activation protein α P48023 Fas ligand P24071 Immunoglobulin A Fc receptor P06734 CD23 P12314 High affinity Immunoglobulin G Fc Alemtuzumab, Daclizumab, Ibritumomab, Trastuzumab, receptor I Bevacizumab, Efalizumab, Muromonab, Adalimumab, Palivizumab, Abciximab, Natalizumab, Intravenous Immunoglobulin, Basiliximab, Cetuximab, Rituximab, Gemtuzumab ozogamicin, Etanercept, Tositumomab, Alefacept, Porfimer, Methyl aminolevulinate P12318 Low affinity immunoglobulin gamma Fc P31994 region receptor II-a/b P12318 Low affinity immunoglobulin gamma Fc P31994 region receptor II-a/b O75015 Immunoglobulin G Fc region receptor Alemtuzumab, Daclizumab, Ibritumomab, Trastuzumab, III-B, low affinity Bevacizumab, Efalizumab, Muromonab, Adalimumab, Palivizumab, Abciximab, Natalizumab, Intravenous Immunoglobulin, Basiliximab, Cetuximab, Rituximab, Gemtuzumab ozogamicin, Etanercept, Tositumomab, Alefacept O00602 Ficolin-1 Q15485 Ficolin-2 O75636 Ficolin-3 Q96P31 Fc receptor-like protein 3 P16591 Tyrosine kinase Fer Q9UGM5 Fetuin B P02671 Fibrinogen P02675 P02679 P02671 D-dimer P02675 P02679 P05230 Acidic fibroblast growth Pazopanib, Amlexanox, Pentosan Polysulfate factor/endothelial cell growth factor O15520 Fibroblast growth factor 10/Keratinocyte growth factor 2 P61328 Fibroblast growth factor 12 O43320 Fibroblast growth factor 16 O60258 Fibroblast growth factor 17 O76093 Fibroblast growth factor 18 O95750 Fibroblast growth factor 19 P09038 Basic fibroblast growth factor Pentosan Polysulfate, Sucralfate, Sirolimus Q9NP95 Fibroblast growth factor 20 Q9GZV9 Fibroblast growth factor 23 P08620 Fibroblast growth factor 4 Pentosan Polysulfate P12034 Fibroblast growth factor 5 P10767 Fibroblast growth factor 6 P21781 Fibroblast growth factor 7 P55075 Fibroblast growth factor 8 isoform B P55075 Fibroblast growth factor 8 isoform A P31371 Fibroblast growth factor 9 P11362 Basic fibroblast growth factor receptor 1 Palifermin, Sorafenib, Ponatinib, Regorafenib P21802 Fibroblast growth factor receptor 2 Thalidomide, Palifermin, Ponatinib, Regorafenib P22607 Fibroblast growth factor receptor 3 Pazopanib, Palifermin, Ponatinib P22455 Fibroblast growth factor receptor 4 Palifermin, Ponatinib P02679 Fibrinogen γ chain dimer Sucralfate P09769 Proto-oncogene tyrosine-protein kinase FGR Q9NZU1 Fibronectin leucine rich transmembrane 1 P36888 Receptor-type tyrosine-protein kinase Sorafenib, Sunitinib, Ponatinib FLT3 P49771 Fms-related tyrosine kinase 3 ligand P35916 Vascular endothelial growth factor Pazopanib, Axitinib, Sunitinib, Sorafenib, receptor 3 Regorafenib P02751 Fibronectin-1 Fragment 3 Ocriplasmin P02751 Fibronectin-1 Fragment 4 Ocriplasmin P02751 Fibronectin Ocriplasmin Q04609 Prostate-specific membrane antigen Capromab Q92765 Frizzled-related protein 3, secreted P19883 Follistatin O95633 Follistatin-like 3 P02794 Ferritin P02792 P21217 Fucosyltransferase 3 Q11128 Fucosyltransferase 5 P06241 Proto-oncogene tyrosine-protein kinase Dasatinib Fyn P06241 Proto-oncogene tyrosine-protein kinase Dasatinib Fyn P04406 Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase P54826 Growth Arrest Specific 1 P01275 Glucagon Q14397 Glucokinase (hexokinase 4) regulator/GCKR O95390 Growth-differentiation factor 11 Q9UK05 Growth-differentiation factor 2 P43026 Bone morphogenetic protein-14 O60383 Growth-differentiation factor 9 P50395 Rab GDP dissociation inhibitor β P14136 Glial fibrillary acidic protein P56159 GDNF family receptor α-1 O00451 GDNF family receptor α-2 O60609 GDNF family receptor α-3 P10912 Growth hormone receptor Somatropin recombinant, Pegvisomant P22749 Granulysin P15586 N-acetylglucosamine-6-sulfatase P17174 Aspartate aminotransferase L-Cysteine, L-Aspartic Acid P07359 Platelet Glycoprotein Ib α Q9HCN6 GPVI/Platelet Glycoprotein VI Q8N158 Glypican-2 P51654 Glypican 3 P78333 Glypican-5 P06744 Glucose phosphate isomerase Q14956 Osteoactivin/GPNMB Q8IZF4 G-protein coupled receptor 114 Q96D09 G protein-coupled receptor associated sorting protein 2 P24298 Alanine aminotransaminase 1 L-Alanine, Phenelzine O75791 GRAP2/GRB2-related adaptor protein 2 O60565 Gremlin-1 P28799 Progranulin P49840 Glycogen synthase kinase-3 α/β P49841 P49840 Glycogen synthase kinase-3 α/β P49841 P06396 Gelsolin Q16772 Glutathione S-transferase A3 Glutathione P09211 Glutathione S-transferase Pi 1 Glutathione, Clomipramine P12544 Granzyme A P10144 Granzyme B P20718 Granzyme H P0C0S5 Histone H2A.z P81172 LEAP-1/Hepcidin P10915 Hyaluronan and proteoglycan link protein 1 O14929 Histone acetyltransferase 1 Q8TDQ0 Hepatitis A virus cellular receptor 2/Tim-3 P69905, Hemoglobin P68871 Q99075 Heparin-binding EGF-like growth factor P08631 Hemopoietic cell kinase Bosutinib Q9BY41 Histone deacetylase 8 Vorinostat Q7Z4V5 Hepatoma-derived growth factor- related protein 2 Q6ZVN8 Hemojuvelin P14210 Hepatocyte growth factor Q04756 Hepatocyte growth factor activator P31937 3-hydroxyisobutyrate dehydrogenase P49773 Histidine triad nucleotide binding Adenosine monophosphate protein 1 Q9H422 Homeodomain-interacting protein kinase 3 P16403 Histone H1.2 P09429 High-mobility group box 1/amphoterin P04035 HMG-CoA reductase Atorvastatin, Fluvastatin, Pravastatin, Pitavastatin, Lovastatin, Rosuvastatin, Simvastatin P30519 Heme oxygenase 2 P22626 Heterogeneous nuclear ribonucleoprotein A2/B1 Q99729 Heterogeneous nuclear ribonucleoprotein AB P61978 Heterogeneous nuclear ribonucleoprotein K P00738 Haptoglobin P15428 15-hydroxyprostaglandin dehydrogenase [NAD+] P02790 Hemopexin P04196 Histidine-proline-rich glycoprotein O60243 Heparan-sulfate 6-O-sulfotransferase 1 P14061 Estradiol 17-β-dehydrogenase 1 Equilin Q99714 3-hydroxyacyl-CoA dehydrogenase type- 2 P07900 HSP 90α/β P08238 P07900 HSP 90α/β P08238 P08107 Hsp70 P11142 Heat shock cognate 71 kDa protein P10809 Hsp60 O43464 High temperature requirement serine peptidase A2 P21815 Bone sialoprotein 2 P05362 Intercellular adhesion molecule 1 Hyaluronan, Natalizumab P13598 Intercellular adhesion molecule 2 P32942 Intercellular adhesion molecule 3 Q9UMF0 Intercellular adhesion molecule 5 Q9Y6W8 Inducible T-cell co-stimulator O75144 B7 homolog 2/ICOS ligand P14735 Insulin-degrading enzyme Insulin, Bacitracin, Insulin Regular P22304 Iduronate 2-sulfatase P35475 α-L-iduronidase P01563 Inferferon-α2 P01579 Inferferon-γ Glucosamine, Olsalazine P15260 Inferferon-γ Receptor 1 Interferon gamma-1b P05019 Insulin-like growth factor I P08069 Insulin-like growth factor I receptor Insulin, Insulin Glargine, Insulin Regular, Insulin Lispro, Mecasermin P11717 Insulin-like growth factor II receptor Mecasermin P08833 Insulin-like growth factor-binding protein 1 P18065 Insulin-like growth factor-binding protein 2 P17936 Insulin-like growth factor-binding Mecasermin protein 3 P22692 Insulin-like growth factor-binding protein 4 P24593 Insulin-like growth factor-binding protein 5 P24592 Insulin-like growth factor-binding protein 6 Q16270 Insulin-like growth factor-binding Insulin, Insulin Regular protein 7 P01880 Immunoglobulin D P01854 Immunoglobulin E P01857 Immunoglobulin G P01857 Immunoglobulin G P01871 Immunoglobulin M P22301 Interleukin-10 Q08334 Interleukin-10 receptor β P20809 Interleukin-11 Q14626 Interleukin-11 receptor α Oprelvekin P29459, Interleukin-12 P29460 P29460, Interleukin-23 Q9NPF7 P42701 Interleukin-12 receptor β1 Q99665 Interleukin-12 receptor β2 P35225 Interleukin-13 P78552 Interleukin-13 receptor α1 Q13261 Interleukin-15 receptor α Q14005 Interleukin-16 Q16552 Interleukin-17 Q9UHF5 Interleukin-17B Q8TAD2 Interleukin-17D Q96PD4 Interleukin-17F Q96F46 Interleukin-17 receptor A Q9NRM6 interleukin-17 receptor B Q8NAC3 Interleukin-17 receptor C Q8NFM7 Interleukin-17 receptor D O95998 Interleukin-18 binding protein Q13478 Interleukin-18 receptor 1 O95256 Interleukin-18 receptor accessory protein Q9UHD0 Interleukin-19 P01583 Interleukin-1α Rilonacept P01584 Interleukin-1β Rilonacept, Gallium nitrate, Canakinumab, Minocycline Q9NZH6 Interleukin-37 P14778 Interleukin-1 receptor 1 Anakinra Q9NPH3 Interleukin-1 Receptor accessory protein Q9NP60 Interleukin-1 receptor accessory protein-like 2/IL-1 sR9 Q01638 Interleukin-1 receptor 4 Q9HB29 Interleukin-1 receptor-like 2 P60568 Interleukin-2 Q9NYY1 Interleukin-20 Q9UHF4 Interleukin-20 receptor subunit α Q9GZX6 Interleukin-22 Q8N6P7 Interleukin-22 receptor α-1 Q969J5 Interleukin-22 receptor subunit α-2 Q5VWK5 Interleukin-23 receptor Q13007 Interleukin-24 Q9H293 Interleukin-17E Q8NEV9 Interleukin-27 Q6UWB1 Interleukin-27 receptor subunit α Q8IZJ0 Inferferon-λ2 Q8IU54 Inferferon-λ1 P01589 Interleukin-2 receptor α chain Denileukin diftitox, Daclizumab, Basiliximab, Aldesleukin P31785 Interleukin-2 receptor γ chain Denileukin diftitox, Aldesleukin P08700 Interleukin-3 Amlexanox Q6ZMJ4 Interleukin-34 P26951 Interleukin-3 receptor α Sargramostim P05112 Interleukin-4 P24394 Interleukin-4 receptor α chain P05113 Interleukin-5 Pranlukast Q01344 Interleukin-5 receptor α P05231 Interleukin-6 Ginseng P08887 Interleukin-6 receptor α chain Tocilizumab P40189 Interleukin-6 receptor subunit β/gp130 P13232 Interleukin-7 P16871 Interleukin-7 receptor subunit α P10145 Interleukin-8 P20839 IMP (inosine 5′-monophosphate) Mycophenolic acid, Ribavirin, Mycophenolate mofetil dehydrogenase 1 P12268 IMP (inosine 5′-monophosphate) Mycophenolic acid, Mycophenolate mofetil dehydrogenase 2 Q9UK53 Inhibitor of growth 1 P08476 Activin A/Inhibin β-A homodimer P08476 Activin AB/Inhibin β-A: β-B heterodimer P09529 P01308 Insulin P06213 Insulin receptor Insulin, Insulin Glulisine, Insulin Aspart, Insulin, Insulin Detemir, Insulin Glargine, Insulin Regular, Insulin Lispro, Mecasermin P56199, Integrin α-1: β-1 complex P05556 P08514 Integrin α-IIb: β-3 complex P05106 P06756, Integrin α-V: β-5 complex P18084 Q14624 Inter-α-trypsin inhibitor heavy chain H4 P78504 Jagged-1 Q9Y219 Jagged-2 O60674 Janus kinase 2 Tofacitinib, Ruxolitinib P57087 Junctional adhesion molecule B Q9BX67 Junctional adhesion molecule C Q92794 Histone acetyltransferases monocytic leukemic zinc-finger protein P35968 Vascular endothelial growth factor Sunitinib, Sorafenib, Regorafenib, Pazopanib, receptor 2 Axitinib, Cabozantinib, Ponatinib Q02241 Kinesin family member 23 Q99706 Killer cell immunoglobulin-like receptor 2DL4 P43630 Killer cell immunoglobulin-like receptor 3DL2 Q14943 Killer cell immunoglobulin-like receptor 3DS1 Q8IZU9 Kirrel3 P10721 Stem cell factor receptor/CD117/c-Kit Pazopanib, Dasatinib, Sunitinib, Sorafenib, Nilotinib, Ponatinib, Imatinib, Regorafenib Q9UBX7 Kallikrein 11 Q9UKR0 Kallikrein 12 Q9UKR3 Kallikrein-13 Q9P0G3 Kallikrein 14 P07288 PSA P07288, PSA: α-1-antichymotrypsin complex P01011 Q9Y5K2 Kallikrein 4 Q9Y337 Kallikrein 5 Q92876 Kallikrein 6 P49862 Kallikrein 7 O60259 Kallikrein 8 P03952 Prekallikrein Q9NZS2 Killer cell lectin-like receptor subfamily F, member 1 P26718 Natural killer group 2 member D P01042 Kininogen-1, HMW, Single chain P01042 Kininogen-1, HMW, Single chain P52292 Karyopherin α 2 (RAG cohort 1, importin α-1) Q14974 Importin β1 P01116 KRAS Q8NCW0 Kremen protein 2 P05783 Keratin 18 Q16719 Kynureninase L-Alanine P32004 Neural cell adhesion molecule L1 (None found) P18627 Lymphocyte-activation gene 3/LAG-3 P25391, Laminin P07942, P11047 Q6UX15 Layilin P18428 Lipopolysaccharide-binding protein P06239 Proto-oncogene tyrosine-protein kinase Dasatinib, Ponatinib LCK P06239 Proto-oncogene tyrosine-protein kinase Dasatinib, Ponatinib LCK Q9UIC8 Leucine carboxyl methyltransferase 1 L-Leucine P80188 Lipocalin 2 Q8N3X6 Transcription factor MLR1 P07195 Lactate dehydrogenase 1 (heart) P41159 Leptin P48357 Leptin receptor P05162 Galectin-2 P17931 Galectin-3 Q08380 Galectin-3 binding protein P56470 Galectin-4 O00214 Galectin-8 Q99538 Legumain P42702 Leukemia inhibitory factor receptor extracellular domain Q8NHL6 Leukocyte immunoglobulin-like receptor subfamily B member 1 Q8N423 Leukocyte immunoglobulin-like receptor subfamily B member 2 Q9HAP6 Protein lin-7 homolog B P20700 Lamin-B1 P22079 Lactoperoxidase Q6UXM1 Leucine-rich repeats and Ig-like domains protein 3 Q14114 Apolipoprotein E receptor 2/LRP8 P30533 α-2-macroglobulin receptor-associated protein Q86UE6 Leucine-rich repeat transmembrane neuronal protein 1 Q86VH5 Leucine-rich repeat transmembrane neuronal protein 3 Q13449 Limbic system-associated membrane protein P01374 Tumor necrosis factor ligand Etanercept superfamily member 1/TNF- β/Lymphotoxin-α P01374, Lymphotoxin α1: β2 Q06643 P01374, Lymphotoxin α2: β1 Q06643 P09960 Leukotriene A-4 hydrolase P36941 Lymphotoxin β receptor P02788 Lactoferrin O95711 Lymphocyte antigen 86/Myeloid differentiation 1 Q9HBG7 T-lymphocyte surface antigen Ly- 9/CD229 P07948 Lyn kinase, isoform B Bosutinib, Ponatinib P07948 Lyn kinase Bosutinib, Ponatinib Q9Y5Y7 Lymphatic vessel endothelial hyaluronic acid receptor 1 P61626 Lysozyme L-Aspartic Acid Q02750 MAPK kinase 1 Bosutinib, Trametinib P36507 MAPK kinase 2 Bosutinib, Trametinib P45985 MAPK kinase 4 O43318 TAK1-TAB1 fusion Q15750 P28482 MAPK 1 Isoprenaline, Arsenic trioxide Q15759 MAPK 11 Regorafenib P53778 MAPK 12 O15264 MAPK 13 Q16539 MAPK 14 P27361 MAPK 3/ERK-1 Arsenic trioxide, Sulindac P45983 MAPK 8 P45984 Mitogen-activated protein kinase 9/JNK2 P49137 MAPK-activated protein kinase 2 Q16644 MAPK-activated protein kinase 3 Q8IW41 MAPK-activated protein kinase 5 P10636 Microtubule-associated protein tau Paclitaxel, Docetaxel P48740 Mannan-binding lectin serine peptidase 1 P42679 Megakaryocyte-associated tyrosine- protein kinase O00339 Matrilin-2 O15232 Matrilin-3 P02144 Myoglobin O95243 Methyl-CpG-binding domain protein 4 P11226 Mannose-binding protein C P40925 Malate dehydrogenase, cytoplasmic P21741 Midkine Q00987 MDM2 ubiquitin ligase Q15648 Mediator complex subunit 1 Q9NQ76 Matrix extracellular phosphoglycoprotein P08581 Hepatocyte growth factor receptor/c- Cabozantinib Met P53582 Methionine aminopeptidase 1 Nitroxoline P50579 Methionine aminopeptidase 2 L-Methionine Q08431 Milk fat globule-EGF factor 8 Q9BY79 Membrane frizzled-related protein/MFRP Q16674 Melanoma Inhibitory Activity Q29983 MHC class I chain-related protein A Q29980 MICB/MHC class I polypeptide-related sequence B P14174 MIF/macrophage migration inhibitory factor Q495T6 Neprilysin-2 P03956 Matrix metalloproteinase 1/ Marimastat collagenase 1 P09238 Matrix metalloproteinase Marimastat 10/Stromelysin 2 P39900 Matrix metalloproteinase Acetohydroxamic Acid, Marimastat 12/Macrophage metalloelastase P45452 Matrix metalloproteinase Marimastat 13/Collagenase 3 P50281 Matrix metalloproteinase Marimastat 14/Membrane type matrix metalloproteinase 1 P51512 Matrix metalloproteinase Marimastat 16/Membrane-type matrix metalloproteinase 3 Matrix metalloproteinase Q9ULZ9 17/Membrane-type matrix Marimastat metalloproteinase 4 P08253 Matrix metalloproteinase Captopril, Marimastat 2/Gelatinase A P08254 Matrix metalloproteinase Marimastat 3/Stromelysin 1 P09237 Matrix metalloproteinase Marimastat 7/Matrilysin P22894 Matrix metalloproteinase Marimastat 8/Neutrophil collagenase P14780 Matrix metalloproteinase Captopril, Glucosamine, Minocycline, Marimastat 9/Gelatinase B P40238 Thrombopoietin Receptor Eltrombopag, Romiplostim P05164 Myeloperoxidase Mesalazine, Melatonin, L-Carnitine, Cefdinir P22897 Macrophage mannose receptor Q9UBG0 Macrophage mannose receptor 2 Q13421 Mesothelin Q13421 Mesothelin P26038 Moesin P21757 Macrophage scavenger receptor P26927 Macrophage stimulatory protein Q04912 Macrophage stimulatory protein receptor Q02083 Acid ceramidase-like protein Q13765 Nascent polypeptide-associated complex α subunit Q9UJ70 N-acetyl-D-glucosamine kinase N-Acetyl-D-glucosamine P43490 Visfatin Q9H9S0 Homeobox transcription factor Nanog P54920 N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive factor attachment protein α P41271 Neuroblastoma suppressor of tumorigenicity 1 P13591 Neural cell adhesion molecule 1, 120 kDa isoform P16333 NCK adaptor protein 1 O76036 NKp46/NCR1/natural cytotoxicity triggering receptor 1 O95944 Natural cytotoxicity triggering receptor 2 O14931 Natural cytotoxicity triggering receptor 3 P01138 β-nerve growth factor Clenbuterol P14543 Nidogen Urokinase Q14112 Nidogen-2 Q8N0W4 Neuroligin 4, X-linked P15531 Nucleoside diphosphate kinase A P22392 Nucleoside diphosphate kinase B P30419 N-myristoyltransferase 1 Q13253 Noggin Family Protein kinase B (RAC family) Family Protein kinase B (RAC family) Non-human APOA1_MOUSE 0 0 P46531 Notch 1 Q04721 Notch 2 Q9UM47 Notch 3 P48745 Nephroblastoma Overexpressed gene Insulin, Insulin Regular homolog P01161 0 P16860 Brain natriuretic peptide 32 Carvedilol P20393 NR1D1/nuclear receptor subfamily 1, group D, member 1 P04150 Glucocorticoid receptor Halobetasol Propionate, Megestrol acetate, Budesonide, Difluprednate, Clobetasol propionate, Flunisolide, Flumethasone Pivalate, Prednisone, Diflorasone, Betamethasone, Desonide, Fluocinolone Acetonide, Clocortolone, Mifepristone, Amcinonide, Paramethasone, Fluticasone furoate, Cortisone acetate, Fluocinonide, Methylprednisolone, Fluticasone Propionate, Flurandrenolide, Fluoxymesterone, Alclometasone, Hydrocortamate, Loteprednol, Beclomethasone, Hydrocortisone, Prednicarbate, Prednisolone, Ciclesonide, Desoximetasone, Medrysone, Triamcinolone, Fludrocortisone, Fluorometholone, Rimexolone, Mometasone, Dexamethasone Q92823 NRCAM/neuronal cell adhesion molecule Q02297 Neuregulin-1 O14786 Neuropilin-1 Palifermin, Pegaptanib P58400 Neurexin-1-β Q9HDB5 Neurexin-3-β Q9UNZ2 NSFL1 cofactor p47 P20783 Neurotrophin-3 P34130 Neurotrophin-5 Q9HB63 Netrin-4 P04629 Neurotrophic tyrosine kinase receptor Amitriptyline, Imatinib, Regorafenib type 1 Q16620 Neurotrophic tyrosine kinase receptor Amitriptyline type 2 Q16288 Neurotrophic tyrosine kinase receptor type 3 Q8IVD9 NudC domain-containing protein 3 P58417 Neurexophilin-1 Q9NX40 Ovarian cancer immunoreactive antigen domain containing 1 Q6UX06 Olfactomedin-4 P78380 Oxidized low-density lipoprotein receptor 1 Q99983 Osteomodulin/Osteoadherin Q14982 Opioid-binding cell adhesion molecule P13725 Oncostatin M P07237 Protein disulfide-isomerase Q9UQ80 ErbB3 binding protein Ebp1 P68402 Platelet-activating factor acetylhydrolase IB subunit β/PAFAH subunit β O75914 p21-activated kinase 3 Q9NQU5 p21-activated kinase 6 Q9P286 p21-activated kinase 7 Q13219 Pregnancy-associated plasma protein-A Q99497 PARK7/Parkinson protein 7 P12004 Proliferating cell nuclear antigen Q16549 Proprotein Convertase 7 Q9BQ51 Programmed cell death 1 ligand 2 Q9HCR9 cAMP and cGMP phosphodiesterase Tadalafil 11A/PDE11A O00408 Phosphodiesterase 2A, cGMP- Tofisopam stimulated Q14432 cGMP-inhibited cAMP Levosimendan, Cilostazol, Anagrelide, Tofisopam, phosphodiesterase 3A/PDE3A Amrinone, Oxtriphylline, Ibudilast, Milrinone, Aminophylline, Enoximone, Theophylline Q08499 cAMP-specific phosphodiesterase Dyphylline, Roflumilast, Adenosine 4D/PDE4D monophosphate, Iloprost, Ibudilast, Ketotifen O76074 cGMP-binding cGMP-specific Dipyridamole, Udenafil, Avanafil, Vardenafil, Sildenafil, phosphodiesterase/PDE5A Tadalafil, Pentoxifylline, Theophylline Q13946 High affinity cAMP-specific Dyphylline, Ketotifen phosphodiesterase 7A/PDE7A O76083 High affinity cAMP-specific phosphodiesterase 9A/PDE9A P04085 Platelet-derived growth factor A chain homodimer P01127 Platelet-derived growth factor B chain homodimer Q9NRA1 Platelet-derived growth factor C chain homodimer P09619 Platelet-derived growth factor receptor Pazopanib, Dasatinib, Becaplermin, Sunitinib, Sorafenib, β-type Imatinib, Regorafenib P30101 Protein disulfide isomerase A3 Q15118 Pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase, isozyme 1 O15530 3-phosphoinositide-dependent protein Celecoxib kinase 1 Q96GD0 Pyridoxal phosphate phosphatase P30086 Phosphatidylethanolamine-binding protein 1 P16284 Platelet endothelial cell adhesion molecule O00541 Pescadillo P02776 Platelet factor 4 Drotrecogin alfa Q99471 Prefoldin subunit 5 P18669 Phosphoglycerate mutase 1 P52209 6-Phosphogluconate dehydrogenase Ketotifen, Dacarbazine, Gadopentetate dimeglumine P49763 Placenta growth factor Aflibercept P00558 Phosphoglycerate kinase 1 O75594 Peptidoglycan recognition protein, short P19957 Elafin P01833 Polymeric immunoglobulin receptor P42336 Phosphoinositide-3-kinase catalytic α P27986 polypeptide: regulatory subunit 1α complex P48736 Phosphatidylinositol-4,5-bisphosphate 3-kinase catalytic subunit γ isoform P11309 Proto-oncogene serine/threonine- Adenosine monophosphate protein kinase Pim-1 P14618 M2-pyruvate kinase Pyruvic acid O15496 Phospholipase A2, Group X P04054 Phospholipase A2, Group IB Niflumic Acid P14555 Phospholipase A2, Group IIA Indomethacin, Diclofenac, Suramin, Ginkgo biloba Q9NZK7 Phospholipase A2, Group IIE Aminosalicylic Acid P39877 Phospholipase A2, Group V Q13093 Platelet-activating factor acetylhydrolase/LDL-associated phospholipase A2 P00750 Tissue-type plasminogen activator Aminocaproic Acid, Iloprost, Urokinase, Ibuprofen P00749 Urokinase-type plasminogen activator Urokinase, Amiloride Q03405 Urokinase plasminogen activator Anistreplase, Urokinase, Tenecteplase, Reteplase, surface receptor Alteplase P19174 Phospholipase C-II P00747 Angiostatin Streptokinase, Anistreplase, Aminocaproic Acid, Urokinase, Reteplase, Alteplase, Aprotinin, Tranexamic Acid, Tenecteplase P00747 Plasmin Streptokinase, Anistreplase, Aminocaproic Acid, Urokinase, Reteplase, Alteplase, Aprotinin, Tranexamic Acid, Tenecteplase P00747 Plasminogen Streptokinase, Anistreplase, Aminocaproic Acid, Urokinase, Reteplase, Alteplase, Aprotinin, Tranexamic Acid, Tenecteplase P53350 Serine-threonine-protein kinase PLK1 O60486 Plexin C1 P01189 β-Endorphin Loperamide P01189 Adrenocorticotropic hormone Loperamide P27169 Paraoxonase 1 Cefazolin P16435 NADPH-P450 Oxidoreductase Flavin adenine dinucleotide Q13950 Osteoblast-specific transcription factor 2 Q15181 Inorganic pyrophosphatase P02775 Neutrophil-activating peptide 2 P02775 Neutrophil-activating peptide 2 P02775 Connective-tissue activating peptide III P62937 Peptidylprolyl isomerase A Cyclosporine, L-Proline (Cyclophilin A) P62937 Peptidylprolyl isomerase A Cyclosporine, L-Proline (Cyclophilin A) P23284 Cyclophilin B L-Proline Q08752 Peptidylprolyl isomerase D Q9UNP9 Peptidylprolyl isomerase E (Cyclophilin E) P30405 Peptidylprolyl isomerase F L-Proline (Cyclophilin F) Q08209 Calcineurin P63098 P63098 Calcineurin subunit B type 1 P01298 Pancreatic hormone Q06830 Peroxiredoxin-1 P30044 Peroxiredoxin-5 Auranofin P30041 Peroxiredoxin-6 Q13131 AMP Kinase (α1β1γ1) Q9Y478 P54619 P54646 O43741 AMP Kinase (α2β2γ2) P54619 P17612 cAMP-dependent protein kinase catalytic subunit α P17252 Protein kinase C α Phosphatidylserine, Ingenol Mebutate, Vitamin E P05771 Protein kinase C β type (splice variant II) Vitamin E Q05655 Protein kinase C λ Ingenol Mebutate P05129 Protein kinase C γ P41743 Protein kinase C ι Q04759 Protein kinase C θ Q05513 Protein kinase C ζ P01236 Prolactin P16471 Prolactin receptor Somatropin recombinant, Fluoxymesterone P04070 Protein C Menadione, Sodium Tetradecyl Sulfate P04070 Activated Protein C Menadione, Sodium Tetradecyl Sulfate P04070 Activated Protein C Menadione, Sodium Tetradecyl Sulfate P58294 Endocrine-gland-derived vascular endothelial growth factor P07225 Protein S Menadione, Sodium Tetradecyl Sulfate, Drotrecogin alfa P07477 Trypsin Aprotinin P07478 Trypsin-2 Q9GZN4 Brain-specific serine protease 4 Q9BQR3 Marapsin P35030 Trypsin-3 P98073 Enterokinase P24158 Proteinase-3 P25786 Proteasome subunit α1 P25787 Proteasome subunit α2 P60900 Proteasome subunit α type 6 P51665 Proteasome subunit p40 Q06323 Proteasome activator subunit 1 P61289 Proteasome activator complex subunit 3 O60542 Persephin P60484 Phosphatase and tensin homolog P35354 Cyclooxygenase-2 Indomethacin, Niflumic Acid, Dihomo-γ_-linolenic acid, Sulfasalazine, Nepafenac, Etoricoxib, Lumiracoxib, Bromfenac, Antipyrine, Tenoxicam, Fenoprofen, Lornoxicam, Naproxen, Etodolac, Oxaprozin, Ginseng, Piroxicam, Trisalicylate-choline, Thalidomide, Flurbiprofen, Salicylate-sodium, Acetylsalicylic acid, Mefenamic acid, Meloxicam, Diflunisal, Meclofenamic acid, Mesalazine, Sulindac, Acetaminophen, Salsalate, Aminosalicylic Acid, Celecoxib, Diclofenac, Ibuprofen, Nabumetone, Balsalazide, Pomalidomide, Ketoprofen, Tolmetin, Carprofen, Tiaprofenic acid, Phenylbutazone, Ketorolac, Salicyclic acid, Antrafenine, Suprofen, Magnesium salicylate, Lenalidomide, Icosapent P01270 Parathyroid hormone P12272 Parathyroid hormone-related protein Q05397 Focal adhesion kinase 1 Q13882 Tyrosine-protein kinase 6 Vandetanib P21246 Pleiotrophin P18031 Tyrosine-protein phosphatase non- receptor type 1 Tiludronate Q06124 Tyrosine-protein phosphatase non- receptor type 11 P17706 Tyrosine-protein phosphatase non- receptor type 2 P29350 Tyrosine phosphatase SHP-1 P10082 Peptide YY P63000 Ras-related C3 botulinum toxin substrate 1 Q06609 DNA repair protein RAD51 homolog 1 P62826 GTP-binding nuclear protein Ran Q99969 Chemerin P20936 RAS p21 protein activator P06400 Retinoblastoma 1 Insulin, Insulin Regular Q14498 RNA-binding motif protein 39 P02753 Retinol-binding protein 4 Q969Z4 RELT tumor necrosis factor receptor P00797 Renin Remikiren, Aliskiren P07949 Proto-oncogene tyrosine-protein kinase Cabozantinib, Sorafenib, Ponatinib, Regorafenib receptor Ret Q9HD89 Resistin Q96B86 Repulsive guidance molecule A Q6NW40 RGM domain family member B Q9HCK4 Roundabout axon guidance molecule 2, ROBO2 Q96MS0 Roundabout axon guidance molecule 3, ROBO3 Q01973 Tyrosine-protein kinase transmembrane receptor ROR1 P62979 Ubiquitin + 1, truncated mutation for UbB P62979 Ubiquitin P23396 Ribosomal protein S3 P51812 Ribosomal protein S6 kinase α-3 O75582 Ribosomal protein S6 kinase 5 P62081 Ribosomal protein S7 P08865 Laminin receptor/ribosomal protein SA Q6UXX9 Roof plate-specific spondin-2, isoform 1 Q9NQC3 Reticulon-4/Nogo-A Q9BZR6 Nogo Receptor/reticulon 4 receptor P06702 S100A9/calgranulin B P02735 Serum amyloid A Q9Y3A5 Ribosome maturation protein SBDS Q14108 LIMPII/SCARB2 Q14162 Scavenger receptor class F member 1/SREC-I Q96GP6 Scavenger receptor class F member 2/SREC-II O75556 Mammaglobin-B P09683 Secretin P16581 E-Selectin P14151 L-Selectin P16109 P-Selectin Dalteparin, Nadroparin, Heparin Q14563 Semaphorin 3A O15041 Semaphorin-3E Q9H2E6 Semaphorin-6A Q9H2E6 Semaphorin-6A P01009 α1-Antitrypsin P01011 α1-Antichymotrypsin P29622 Kallistatin P05154 Protein C Inhibitor Urokinase, Drotrecogin alfa P08185 Corticosteroid binding globulin P05543 Thyroxine-Binding Globulin P01008 Antithrombin III Tinzaparin, Dalteparin, Nadroparin, Fondaparinux sodium, Sulodexide, Ardeparin, Enoxaparin, Heparin P05546 Heparin cofactor II Ardeparin, Sulodexide P05121 Plasminogen activator inhibitor 1 Anistreplase, Urokinase, Reteplase, Alteplase, Tenecteplase, Drotrecogin alfa P07093 Protease nexin I P08697 α2-Antiplasmin Ocriplasmin P05155 C1-Esterase Inhibitor Q01105 SET nuclear oncogene protein Q6UXD5 Seizure 6-like protein 2 P31947 14-3-3σ/Stratifin Q8N474 Frizzled-related protein 1, secreted P35247 Pulmonary surfactant-associated protein D O43765 Small glutamine-rich tetratricopeptide repeat-containing protein α O60880 Signaling lymphocyte activation molecule/CDw150 P04278 Sex hormone-binding globulin P29353 SHC-transforming protein 1 Q15465 Sonic Hedgehog Q9BZZ2 Sialoadhesin Q08ET2 Siglec-14 O43699 Siglec-6 Q9Y286 Siglec-7 Q9Y336 Siglec-9 Q8IXJ6 Sirtuin 2 P63208 S-phase kinase-associated protein 1 Q96DU3 SLAM family member 6/NTB-A Q9NQ25 SLAM family member 7/CRACC Q9H1K4 Mitochondrial glutamate carrier 2 O94991 SLIT and NTRK-like protein 5 P03973 Secretory leukocyte protease inhibitor Q92484 Sphingomyelin phosphodiesterase, acid- like 3A P62306 Small nuclear ribonucleoprotein F O95219 Sorting nexin 4 P00441 Superoxide dismutase [Cu—Zn] P04179 Superoxide dismutase [Mn] Q96PQ0 Sortilin-related VPS10 domain containing receptor 2 P09486 Osteonectin Q14515 SPARC-like 1 (hevin) Q9NYA1 Sphingosine kinase 1 Q9NRA0 Sphingosine kinase 2 O43278 Hepatocyte growth factor activator inhibitor type 1 O43291 Kunitz-type protease inhibitor 2A Q08629 Testican-1/SPOCK1 Q92563 Testican-2/SPOCK2 Q9HCB6 Spondin-1 Q13813 αII-Spectrin P12931 Proto-oncogene tyrosine-protein Dasatinib, Bosutinib, Ponatinib kinase Src Q08945 FACT complex subunit SSRP1 P61278 Somatostatin-28 Cysteamine Q8WWQ8 Stabilin-2 P52823 Stanniocalcin-1 P31948 Stress-induced-phosphoprotein 1 O75716 Serine-threonine-protein kinase 16 O94768 Serine/threonine kinase 17b (STK17B)/DRAK2 Q16623 Syntaxin 1A O60506 Heterogeneous nuclear ribonucleoprotein Q P09758 Tumor-associated calcium signal transducer 2 Q9UHD2 TANK-binding kinase 1 P20226 TATA-box-binding protein P13385 Cripto-1 P42680 Tyrosine-protein kinase Tec Q02763 Tyrosine-protein kinase receptor Tie-2, Vandetanib, Ponatinib, Regorafenib soluble/Angiopoietin-1 receptor P02787 Transferrin Aluminium Q07654 Trefoil factor 3 P10646 Tissue factor pathway inhibitor Dalteparin, Coagulation factor VIIa P01266 Thyroglobulin P01137 Transforming growth factor β-1 Hyaluronidase P61812 Transforming growth factor β-2 P10600 Transforming growth factor β-3 Q15582 Transforming growth factor β induced protein P37173 TGF-β receptor II Q03167 Transforming growth factor β receptor type III Q08188 Transglutaminase 3 P07996 Thrombospondin-1 P35442 Thrombospondin-2 P35443 Thrombospondin-4 P35590 Tyrosine-protein kinase receptor Tie-1, soluble P01033 Tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinases 1 P16035 Tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinases 2 P35625 Tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinases 3 P04183 Thymidine kinase, cytosolic P29401 Transketolase O60603 Toll-like receptor 2 OspA lipoprotein O00206 Toll-like receptor 4 Naloxone P24821 Tenascin P01375 Tumor necrosis factor ligand Thalidomide, Chloroquine, golimumab, Adalimumab, superfamily member 2/TNF-α Pranlukast, Certolizumab pegol, Clenbuterol, Amrinone, Pomalidomide, Glucosamine, Etanercept, Infliximab P98066 Tumor necrosis factor-inducible gene 6 protein O00220 Tumor necrosis factor receptor superfamily member 10A Q9UBN6 Tumor necrosis factor receptor superfamily member 10D Q9Y6Q6 Receptor activator of NF-KB/RANK O00300 Osteoprotegerin/TNFRSF11B Q9NP84 TWEAK receptor/TNFRSF12A O14836 Tumor necrosis factor receptor superfamily member 13B Q96RJ3 B-cell-activating factor receptor/TNFRSF13C Q92956 HVEM/TNFRSF14 Q02223 B-cell maturation protein Q9Y5U5 GITR/TNFRSF18 Q9NS68 TROY/TNFRSF19 P19438 Tumor necrosis factor receptor superfamily member 1A P20333 Tumor necrosis factor receptor Etanercept superfamily member 1B O75509 Death receptor 6(DR6)/TNFRSF21 Q93038 Death receptor 3 (DR3)/TNFRSF25 P43489 Tumor necrosis factor receptor superfamily member 4 O95407 Death decoy receptor 3 (DcR3)/TNFRSF6B P28908 CD30 Brentuximab vedotin Q07011 4-1BB/CD137 O14788 Osteoprotegerin ligand/TRANCE Denosumab, Lenalidomide O43508 Tumor necrosis factor ligand superfamily member 12 Q9Y275 B-cell-activating factor Belimumab O43557 LIGHT/TNFSF14 O95150 Tumor necrosis factor ligand superfamily member 15 Q9UNG2 Tumor necrosis factor ligand superfamily member 18 P23510 OX40 Ligand/Tumor necrosis factor ligand superfamily member 4 P32971 CD30 Ligand P41273 4-1BB ligand/CD137L P27768 0 P23693 0 P11387 Topoisomerase I Irinotecan, Topotecan, Lucanthone, Sodium stibogluconate P60174 Triosephosphate isomerase P09493 Tropomyosin 1 P07951 Tropomyosin β chain P07202 Thyroid peroxidase Dextrothyroxine, Propylthiouracil, Carbimazole, Methimazole P20231 Tryptase β-2 Q9NRR2 Tryptase γ P13693 Fortilin Q969D9 Thymic stromal lymphopoietin O95881 Thioredoxin domain-containing Glutathione protein 12 P29597 tyrosine kinase 2 P04818 Thymidylate synthase Pemetrexed, Trimethoprim, Fluorouracil, Leucovorin, Gemcitabine, Pralatrexate, Capecitabine, Raltitrexed, Trifluridine, Floxuridine Q06418 Tyrosine-protein kinase receptor TYRO3 P63279 SUMO-conjugating enzyme UBC9 P68036 Ubiquitin-conjugating enzyme E2 L3 P61088 Ubiquitin-conjugating enzyme E2 N P09936 Ubiquitin C-terminal hydrolase-L1 Q9Y3C8 Ubiquitin-fold modifier-conjugating enzyme 1 P61960 Ubiquitin-fold modifier 1 Q9BZM6 UL16-binding protein 1/NKG2D ligand 1 Q9BZM5 UL16-binding protein 2/NKG2D ligand 2 Q9BZM4 UL16 binding protein 3 O95185 Netrin receptor UNC5H3 Q6UXZ4 Netrin receptor UNC5H4 P19320 Vascular cell adhesion protein Carvedilol 1/VCAM 1 P15692 Vascular endothelial growth factor A Dalteparin, Carvedilol, Gliclazide, Vandetanib, Ranibizumab, Bevacizumab, Minocycline, Aflibercept P15692 Vascular endothelial growth factor A, Dalteparin, Carvedilol, Gliclazide, Vandetanib, secreted splice variant Ranibizumab, Bevacizumab, Minocycline, Aflibercept P49767 Vascular endothelial growth factor C P01282 Vasoactive Intestinal Peptide Q9NP79 Dopamine responsive protein P04275 von Willebrand factor Antihemophilic Factor Q8TEU8 Growth and differentiation factor- associated serum protein 1/GASP1/WFIKKN2 Q9Y5W5 Wnt inhibitory factor 1 O95388 WNT1-inducible-signaling pathway protein 1 O00755 Wingless-type MMTV integration site family, member 7A P47992 Lymphotactin Q9NQW7 X-Pro aminopeptidase 1 P12956 ATP-dependent DNA helicase II 70 kDa subunit P07947 Proto-oncogene tyrosine-protein kinase Dasatinib Yes Family 14-3-3 protein family Family 14-3-3 protein family P43403 ZAP70/70 kDa zeta-associated protein kinase P43403 ZAP70/70 kDa zeta-associated protein kinase P43403 ZAP70/70 kDa zeta-associated protein kinase

Example 2

Table 12 shows proteins that have differential expression in Duchene muscular dystrophy (DMD) and non-DMD subjects identified utilizing the aptamer-based compositions and methods described herein.

TABLE 12 Down in blood in DMD patients (not synthesized in muscle) Gene No Name Full name Average KS 45 GDF11 Growth/differentiation factor 11 −0.80 51 RELT Tumor necrosis factor receptor −0.78 superfamily member 19L 49 CD55 Complement decay-accelerating −0.74 factor 42 CADM1 Nectin-like protein 2 −0.57 32 OMD Osteomodulin −0.57 41 CHL1 Neural cell adhesion molecule L1- −0.56 like protein 35 EMR2 EGF-like module-containing mucin- −0.53 like hormone receptor-like 2 33 IBSP Bone sialoprotein 2 −0.52 34 CA6 Carbonic anhydrase 6 −0.52 30 CLEC11A Stem Cell Growth Factor-alpha −0.46

Pictographs were generated plotting the relative protein expression levels (RFU) vs. age (years) of subjects in both non-DMD and DMD boys. Proteins that are different between the control and the DMD subjects are shown in FIG. 4 , where the protein decreases in the DMD subject while the same protein increases in the control.

Several animal models find use with the methods and compositions of the invention for identifying, modulating and monitoring drug targets in muscular disease. Male mice (e.g., MDx strains) have been maintained without a functional dystrophin. While these mice are not normal, the phenotype is not as severe as the phenotypes of DMD patients. The MDx mouse model becomes more severe and more like the human disease when a second knock-out is added to the dystrophin mutation (a common second mutation is in the utrophin gene). Thus, in one embodiment, GDF-11 can be administered to subject (e.g. mouse model of DMD) in order to ameliorate the symptoms of the subject (e.g., DMD symptoms of the MDx mouse and MDx-utrophin-less mouse. One of ordinary skill in the art knows well method for identifying a therapeutically effective dose. For example, it is possible to first analyze the required GDF-11 injection doses and injection schedule to maintain the circulating GDF-11 concentration at or near a wild-type level, and the determined dose could be used in the dystrophin and dystrophin-utrophin models. In addition, dog and pig dystrophin knock-outs can also be treated with injected GDF-11.

For humans, dosing pharmacokinetics and safety can be to be established. After preclinical safety/toxicity experiments have been completed to regulatory standards, a drug concentration is identified at which toxicity starts, and the target organs for toxicity identified. In one non-limiting example, human experiments are performed in single escalating dose experiments followed by multiple dose escalation experiments, usually in healthy volunteers although in this case it might be better done in DMD subjects depending on discussion with an IRB and with parent organizations because the pharmacokinetics (PK) in 18-45 year old healthy volunteers might be different. If required by such discussions, the PK experiments might need to be performed in healthy adults first and then confirmed in smaller groups of DMD children. For single dose, groups of 8 subjects (randomized to 8 active and 2 placebo per group) receive a subcutaneous and/or intramuscular injection. Blood samples are taken in a time series, typically at 0, 0.5, 1, 2, 4, 8, 24, 48 and a few days after the injection. Doses would be calculated using the mouse pharmacology and toxicity data to start at a level below any active level, and the PK and safety checked in each group before the next escalation. Subsequent groups often go up in half log dose steps until adverse effects are experienced or until a predefined stopping rule for a concentration. Typically 6 or more dose escalations are performed before a limiting adverse effect but this can be dependent upon the pharmacology.

Multiple dose studies are similar in group size and usually last 2 weeks to establish safety and steady-stake PK. These studies may use the single dose experiments' information as a starting point so the initial dose is likely to be higher. Using the PK results from single dose, a dosing regimen can be defined which is likely to achieve a target concentration or which ensures that it does not fall below a defined trough. This may be once, twice or three times a day. If there is uncertainty, the multiple dose experiment might use more than one dosing regimen. Initially if the PK is short, dosing regimens can be used which would not be practical on a large scale but which will test the hypothesis; if efficacy is achieved PK can be improved and regimens made more practical through slow release formulations.

Efficacy experiments can be performed in subjects with DMD using the regimens identified in the multiple dose PK study which achieved the target concentration (e.g. matching the normal concentration or higher). Typically a phase IIa efficacy experiment would test placebo plus 2-3 doses and dosing regimens. Groups may be of the order of 20 subjects each, selected to be early enough in the disease such that improvement is possible, and the study duration would be estimated to be long enough to see trends efficacy differences, not necessarily with each group reaching statistically significant—this may be 3-6 months or an adaptive design could be used where a data safety monitoring board lets the study continue until either futility or a difference is apparent. Metrics for efficacy may include 6 minute walk, muscle MRI, muscle biopsy and blood based biomarkers using SOMAscan and/or immunoassays. Trends in the right direction would lead to a phase IIb program which would use the phase IIa metrics to define a statistically powered size and duration. If the dosing regimen required is impractical, slow release formulations would be developed, go through the single and multiple dose PK and then into phase IIb.

Example 3

Table 13 shows a summary of the fold expression difference in protein levels of the metalloproteinase (MMP) family members from tumor tissue versus healthy adjacent tissue for about 258 subjects with lung cancer (categorized as adenocarcinoma, squamous cell, carcinosarcoma, large cell, mucoepidermoid, spindle cell, benign, pleomorphic carcinoma, pleomorphic-adenocarcinoma, and benign with history of cancer). Individual subjects, irrespective of the specific lung cancer diagnosis, show differential MMP expression levels (overexpressed or underexpressed in tumors). The drug marimastat antagonizes MMP family members, and therefore is useful in treating cancer having one or more overexpressed MMPs. Preclinical studies showed that antagonizing MMP function or expression inhibits tumor growth (e.g., in breast cancer models).

TABLE 13 Summary of the different MMP family members and the number of subjects having an expression level difference of four fold or greater based on tumor tissue proteins levels versus healthy adjacent tissue protein levels. Total Subjects Malignant Tumor Benign Tumor MMP Havingat Least Expression Expression Family a 4-fold Expression Levels at Levels of at Member Difference Least 4-fold Least 4-fold MMP-12 164 152 12 MMP-1 123 116 7 MMP-7 82 82 0 MMP-9 38 34 4 MMP-13 33 33 0 MMP-8 32 31 1 MMP-10 16 15 1 MMP-2 9 7 2

In this study, no correlation was found with the specific lung cancer diagnosis, the staging of the cancer, the sex of the patient or the genetic information (e.g., gene mutation; several subjects had the BRAF, EGFR or KRAS mutation). The independence of the proteomic information, specifically for the MMP family members, may be informative as to the treatment regime that should be used for each individual.

A recent phase III clinical trial testing the efficacy of marimastat (MMP antagonist) in subjects having metastatic breast cancer showed that there was no significant difference between the marimastat treated subjects and those that received the placebo. In general, the conclusion from the trial was that marimastat was not effective in stopping and/or slowing breast cancer disease progression.

While the proteomic data summarized in Table 13 was derived from lung cancer patients, the observed heterogeneity of the MMP family members in these lung cancer subjects may be indicative of what may be observed in other cancer types (e.g., breast cancer). Accordingly, this heterogeneity may be, in part, the reason why certain anti-cancer drugs and/or treatments result in heterogeneous outcomes and/or insignificant efficacy. In this context, one may propose that treatment regimens for cancer patients and/or patients in clinical trials may be stratified based on individualized proteomic profiles, in place of, or in addition to, standard pathology and/or genetic testing. Thus, applying this reasoning to the phase III clinical trial for marimastat with breast cancer patients discussed previously, these patients could have been selected for treatment with marimastat based on the overexpression levels of MMP family members, rather than standard diagnostic methods. For lung cancer patients, the same treatment selection and/or clinical trial stratification could be applied. In effect, treatment regimens and/or clinical trial stratifications could be selected based on the expression levels of a particular protein or set of proteins whereby a 4, 10, 20 or 50-fold difference between tumor protein levels and healthy tissue levels would indicate whether an individual is likely to respond to treatment with a particular drug, such as a drug that targets (e.g., antagonizes) the protein with the elevated expression levels.

Example 4

Table 14 provides a list of drug names that target specific proteins. Each row provides the drug-protein association or where the protein target for the drug corresponds (corresponds in the context of table 14 indicates that the protein shares the same row with the drug name of the table. This table may be used as a reference for developing a personalized treatment plan based on aberrant protein expression in an individual. For example, the reference table may be used where an individual may suffer from specific condition or disease and have up-regulated levels of Serine/threonine-protein kinase Chk1 by about 4, 10, 20 or 50-fold relative to a reference control protein level.

Thus, in one embodiment a method for selecting a subject for treatment with a drug the method comprising, detecting the level of at least one protein from Table 14 from a biological sample from the subject, determining the fold difference of the level of the at least one protein from table 14 form the biological sample compared to a reference control sample, selecting the subject for treatment with a drug from table 14 that corresponds to the at least on protein from table 14, wherein the subject is treated with the drug selected from table 14 when the fold difference of the level of the at least one protein from table 14 is at least 4-fold, 10-fold, 15-fold, 20-fold, 25-fold, 30-fold, 35-fold, 40-fold, 45-fold or 50-fold from the biological sample compared to the reference control, and wherein the subject is in need of treatment and is administered the drug for treatment based on the fold difference of the level of the at least one protein from Table 14.

TABLE 14 List of drugs that target proteins Protein Name Drug Name TTDC ID TYPE UniProt Serine/threonine-protein 2- TTDC00005 Clinical trial O14757 kinase Chk1 (cyclohexylamino)benzoic, target Serine/threonine-protein 2-(1H-pyrazol-3-yl)-1H- TTDC00006 Clinical trial O14965 kinase 6 benzimidazole, target Serine/threonine-protein 2-(4-Phenoxy-phenyl)-1H- TTDC00010 Discontinued O96017 kinase Chk2 benzoimidazol-5-ylamine, target Plasma kallikrein (3,4-dichlorophenyl)(1H- TTDC00013 Successful P03952 pyrazol-1-yl)methanone, target Protein kinase C gamma (−)-Cercosporamide, TTDC00015 Clinical trial P05129 type target Heat shock protein HSP 17-Dmag, TTDC00018 Clinical trial P07900 90 target Cathepsin G Aloxistatin, TTDC00019 Clinical trial P08311 target Integrin alpha-5 c(-GRGDfL-), TTDC00020 Clinical trial P08648 target Lysosomal alpha- (−)-uniflorine, TTDC00023 Clinical trial P10253 glucosidase target Basic fibroblast growth 2-(1H-indazol-3-yl)-1H- TTDC00024 Clinical trial P11362 factor receptor 1 benzo[d]imidazole, target Interleukin-2 receptor TTDC00026 Clinical trial P14784 subunit beta target Integrin beta-7 TR-14035, TTDC00031 Clinical trial P26010 target Tyrosine-protein Sodium, TTDC00032 Clinical trial P29350 phosphatase non-receptor target type 6 Interleukin-12 STA-5326, TTDC00033 Successful P29459 target MAP kinase p38 4,5,6,7- TTDC00044 Clinical trial P53778 tetrabromobenzotriazole, target Ephrin type-B receptor 4 TG-100435, TTDC00045 Clinical trial P54760 target Induced myeloid leukemia ALTENUSIN, TTDC00048 Clinical trial Q07820 cell differentiation protein target Mcl-1 Carboxypeptidase B2 (+/−)-5-amino-2- TTDC00053 Discontinued Q96IY4 (mercaptomethyl)pentanoic, target Cathepsin S 2-[(2′,3′,4′- TTDC00067 Discontinued P25774 TRIFLUOROBIPHENYL- target 2-YL)OXY]ETHANOL, 92 kDa type IV (+/−)5-(biphenyl-4-yl)-3- TTDC00076 Discontinued P14780 collagenase hydroxypentanoic, target Protein kinase C, delta 13-Acetylphorbol, TTDC00077 Clinical trial Q05655 type target Interleukin-4 receptor TTDC00081 Clinical trial P24394 alpha chain target C1 esterase C1-INH, TTDC00085 Successful P09871 target Thromboxane-A synthase 2-(10-Imidazol-1-yl-decyl)- TTDC00086 Clinical trial P24557 isoindole-1,3-dione, target Cell division protein (2′Z,3′E)-5-Chloro-5′- TTDC00088 Clinical trial P24941 kinase 2 chloro-indirubin-3′-oxime, target Purine nucleoside (+/−)-5′-deoxy-4′-fluoro-5′- TTDC00091 Clinical trial P00491 phosphorylase methylthio-DADMe-ImmH, target E-selectin 1na, TTDC00098 Clinical trial P16581 target Hypoxia-inducible factor 1 HIF-1alpha, TTDC00101 Clinical trial Q16665 alpha target Mitogen-activated protein 2,6-Dihydroanthra/1,9- TTDC00102 Clinical trial P45983 kinase 8 Cd/Pyrazol-6-One, target Macrophage migration 3,4-Dihydroxycinnamic, TTDC00103 Clinical trial P14174 inhibitory factor target Von Willebrand factor Auryntricarboxylic, TTDC00108 Clinical trial P04275 target STAT-1 transcription AVT-02, TTDC00113 Clinical trial P42224 factor target Receptor protein-tyrosine CI-1033, TTDC00114 Discontinued Q15303 kinase erbB-4 target Platelet-activating factor (1R)-1,2,2- TTDC00116 Clinical trial Q13093 acetylhydrolase TRIMETHYLPROPYL, target Cellular tumor antigen p53 1-(9-ethyl-9H-carbazol-3- TTDC00118 Clinical trial P04637 yl)-N-methylmethanamine, target Transcription factor AP-1 PNRI-299, TTDC00119 Clinical trial P05412 target Leukotriene B4 receptor 1 (3S,4R)-3-Benzyl-7- TTDC00129 Clinical trial Q15722 isopropyl-chroman-4-ol, target Leukotriene A-4 hydrolase (4-(thiophen-2- TTDC00130 Clinical trial P09960 yl)phenyl)methanamine, target Interleukin-7 receptor TTDC00136 Clinical trial P16871 alpha chain target Neural-cadherin TTDC00137 Clinical trial P19022 target Serine/threonine protein AT-9283, TTDC00139 Clinical trial Q96GD4 kinase 12 target Phosphatidylinositol-4,5- 2-(4-Morpholinyl)-8- TTDC00140 Clinical trial P48736 bisphosphate 3-kinase Phenyl-4h-1-Benzopyran-4- target catalytic subunit, gamma One, isoform Hexokinase D Beta-D-Glucose, TTDC00141 Clinical trial P35557 target mRNA of Clusterin TTDC00142 Clinical trial P10909 target Fructose-1,6- 1-(2-mercaptoethyl)-3-(m- TTDC00152 Clinical trial P09467 bisphosphatase tolylsulfonyl)urea, target Tyrosine-protein kinase ELLAGIC, TTDC00156 Clinical trial P43405 SYK target Serine/threonine-protein BI, TTDC00160 Clinical trial P53350 kinase PLK1 target Angiopoietin 1 receptor (4-Phenoxy-phenyl) - TTDC00161 Discontinued Q02763 quinazolin-4-yl-amine, target Protein kinase C, beta type (−)-Cercosporamide, TTDC00163 Clinical trial P05771 target Cell division control (2,6-Diamino-pyridin-3-yl)- TTDC00166 Clinical trial P06493 protein 2 homolog phenyl-methanone, target Antiapoptotic protein 4′-FLUORO-1,1′- TTDC00168 Clinical trial Q07817 BCL-XL BIPHENYL-4- target CARBOXYLIC, PDE4 (R)-Rolipram, TTDC00170 Clinical trial Q08499 target Interleukin-13 Anti-IL13, TTDC00177 Clinical trial P35225 target Protein kinase C, theta 2,3,3-Triphenyl- TTDC00178 Clinical trial Q04759 type acrylonitrile, target Amyloid beta A4 protein 1,6-Bis(4′-hydroxyphenyl)- TTDC00180 Successful P05067 hexa-1,3,5-triene, target Protein kinase C, alpha (−)-Cercosporamide, TTDC00182 Clinical trial P17252 type target Interleukin-9 MEDI-528, TTDC00186 Clinical trial P15248 target Tumor necrosis factor receptor superfamily member 16 TTDC00189 Clinical trial P08138 target Protein-tyrosine 1,2,5-THIADIAZOLIDIN- TTDC00191 Clinical trial P18031 phosphatase, non-receptor 3-ONE-1,1-DIOXIDE, target type 1 mRNA of Intercellular A-286982, TTDC00192 Clinical trial P05362 adhesion molecule-1 target Mitogen-activated protein (5-amino-1-phenyl-1H- TTDC00201 Clinical trial Q16539 kinase 14 pyrazol-4- target yl)phenylmethanone, Ubiquitin-protein ligase R7112, TTDC00206 Successful Q00987 E3 Mdm2 target Angiopoietin-2 AMG, TTDC00210 Clinical trial O15123 target Connective tissue growth FG-3019, TTDC00213 Clinical trial P29279 factor target Interleukin-17 AIN457, TTDC00214 Clinical trial Q16552 target Tumor necrosis factor receptor superfamily member 4 TTDC00219 Clinical trial P43489 target Sodium-and chloride-dependent glycine transporter 1 TTDC00227 Clinical trial P48067 target Interleukin-1 receptor, TTDC00234 Clinical trial P27930 type II target Bcl-2-like protein 2 ABT-263, TTDC00244 Clinical trial Q92843 target Synaptic vesicle Brivaracetam, TTDC00246 Clinical trial Q7L0J3 glycoprotein 2A target Mucosal addressin cell TTDC00248 Clinical trial Q13477 adhesion molecule 1 target Pigment epithelium- AdPEDR, TTDC00252 Clinical trial P36955 derived factor target Ciliary neurotrophic factor TTDC00257 Clinical trial P26992 receptor alpha target Beta-2-glycoprotein 1 Alpha-D-Mannose, TTDC00264 Clinical trial P02749 target Tumor necrosis factor receptor superfamily member 10B TTDC00266 Clinical trial O14763 target mRNA of Heat shock 27 BIRB796, TTDC00269 Clinical trial P04792 kDa protein target Myc proto-oncogene TWS-119, TTDC00271 Clinical trial P01106 protein target Transforming growth TTDC00272 Clinical trial P61812 factor beta 2 target Baculoviral IAP repeat- Terameprocol, TTDC00273 Clinical trial O15392 containing protein 5 target Alpha platelet-derived (1H-indol-2-yl)(5-methoxy- TTDC00311 Discontinued P16234 growth factor receptor 1H-indol-2-yl)methanone, target Nicotinic acid receptor 1H-Pyrazole-3-carboxylic, TTDC00317 Successful Q8TDS4 target mRNA of copper zinc superoxide dismutase 1 TTDC00325 Clinical trial P00441 target Complement factor D TTDC00326 Clinical trial P00746 target mRNA of Factor XI TTDC00330 Clinical trial P03951 target Apolipoprotein B-100 SPC4955, TTDC00331 Successful P04114 target mRNA of VEGFR1 (2-Methoxy-phenyl)-(5- TTDC00334 Clinical trial P17948 phenyl-oxazol-2-yl)-amine, target mRNA of connective TTDC00335 Clinical trial P29279 tissue growth factor target CD70 TTDC00337 Clinical trial P32970 target Activin receptor-like ACE-041, TTDC00338 Clinical trial P37023 kinase-1 target Nectin-4 TTDC00343 Clinical trial Q96NY8 target mRNA of growth TTDC00345 Clinical trial P10912 hormone receptor target

REFERENCES

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All publications and patents mentioned in the above specification are herein incorporated by reference. Various modifications and variations of the described method and system of the invention will be apparent to those skilled in the art without departing from the scope and spirit of the invention. Although the invention has been described in connection with specific preferred embodiments, it should be understood that the invention as claimed should not be unduly limited to such specific embodiments. Indeed, various modifications of the described modes for carrying out the invention that are obvious to those skilled in molecular biology, in vitro fertilization, development, or related fields are intended to be within the scope of the following claims. 

1. A method for identifying protein targets, comprising: a) assaying a biological sample from a subject diagnosed with a disease to identify altered levels of one or more proteins relative to the level of said protein in a reference sample; and b) identifying one or more treatments that targets one or more of said proteins with altered expression.
 2. The method of claim 1, wherein said proteins are selected from AGER, THBS2, CA3, MMP12, MMP-1, MMP-7, MMP-9, MMP-13, MMP-8, MMP-10, MMP-2, PIGR, DCN, PGAM1, CD36, FABP, ACP5, CCDC80, PPBP, LYVE1, STC1, SPON1, IL17RC, MMP1, CA1, SERPINC1, TPSB2, CKB/CKBM, NAMPT/PBEF, PPBP/CTAPIII, F9, DCTPP1, F5, SPOCK2, CAT, PF4, MDK, BGN, CKM, POSTN, PGLYRP1, and CXCL12.
 3. The method of claim 1, wherein said reference sample is sample of normal tissue from said subject, or a population average of normal tissue.
 4. (canceled)
 5. (canceled)
 6. The method of claim 1 further comprising administering said one or more treatments to said subject.
 7. (canceled)
 8. The method of claim 1, wherein said disease is selected from the group consisting of a cancer, a metabolic disorder, an inflammatory disease and an infectious disease.
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 22. (canceled)
 23. (canceled)
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 28. A method for selecting a subject for treatment with a drug, the method comprising: a) detecting the level of a matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) protein from a biological sample from a subject, wherein the biological sample is a sample from diseased tissue or diseased cells from the subject; b) determining a fold difference of the level of the MMP protein from the biological sample compared to a normal biological sample of the same tissue or cell type from the same subject; c) selecting the subject for treatment with a drug based on the fold difference of the level of the MMP protein, wherein the subject is treated with the drug when the fold difference of the level of the MMP protein is at least 4-fold, 10-fold, 15-fold, 20-fold, 25-fold, 30-fold, 35-fold, 40-fold, 45-fold or 50-fold from the biological sample compared to the normal biological sample, and wherein the subject is in need of treatment and is administered the drug for treatment based on the fold difference of the level of the MMP protein.
 29. The method of claim 28, wherein the MMP protein is MMP12, MMP-1, MMP-7, MMP-9, MMP-13, MMP-8, MMP-10, MMP-2 or a combination thereof.
 30. The method of claim 28, wherein the drug is marimastat.
 31. (canceled)
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 33. (canceled)
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 38. A method for selecting a subject for a clinical trial, the method comprising: a) detecting the level of a protein from a biological sample from a subject; b) determining a fold difference of the level of the protein from the biological sample compared to a normal biological sample from the same subject; and c) selecting the subject for the clinical trial or excluding the subject from the clinical trial based on the fold difference of the level of the protein, wherein the subject is included in the clinical trial when the fold difference of the level of the protein is at least 4-fold, 10-fold, 15-fold, 20-fold, 25-fold, 30-fold, 35-fold, 40-fold, 45-fold or 50-fold from the biological sample compared to the normal biological sample.
 39. The method of claim 38, wherein the protein is MMP12, MMP-1, MMP-7, MMP-9, MMP-13, MMP-8, MMP-10, MMP-2 or a combination thereof.
 40. The method of claim 38, wherein the drug is marimastat.
 41. The method of claim 38, wherein the biological sample is a tumor sample, serum sample, plasma sample, urine sample, blood sample, saliva sample, tissue sample, cell sample or a combination thereof.
 42. The method of claim 38, wherein the detecting is performed with an aptamer, antibody and/or mass spectrometry.
 43. The method of claim 38, wherein the normal biological sample is the same sample type as the biological sample.
 44. The method of claim 38, wherein the normal biological sample is a sample taken from the same subject at a time when the subject was not diagnosed with a disease or condition, or is a sample taken from the subject where the sample does not have the genotype and/or the phenotype of the biological sample.
 45. The method of claim 38, wherein the subject has cancer.
 46. The method of claim 45, wherein the cancer is leukemia, lymphoma, prostate cancer, lung cancer, breast cancer, liver cancer, colorectal cancer, kidney cancer.
 47. The method of claim 46, wherein the cancer is lung cancer.
 48. The method of claim 47, wherein the lung cancer is selected from non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC), small cell lung cancer, large cell lung cancer, adenocarcinoma, squamous carcinoma, carcinosarcoma, mucoepidermoid carcinoma, spindle cell carcinoma, pleomorphic carcinoma, and pleomorphic adenomacarcinoma. 